Abuse of Process :

There is said to be an abuse of process when an adversary, through the malicious and unfounded use of some regular legal proceeding, obtains some advantage over his opponent.  Wharton.  Employment of process for doing an act clearly outside authority conveyed by express terms of writ. --- Holding of accused incommunicado before complying with warrant requiring accused to be taken before magistrate. --- Warrant of arrest to coerce debtor. A malicious abuse of legal process occurs where the party employs it for some unlawful object, not the purpose which it is intended by the law to effect; in other words, a perversion of it. (Blacks 4th)

Acceptance:

The voluntary act of receiving something or agreeing to certain terms. In contract law, acceptance is consent to the terms of an offer, creating a binding contract; the taking and receiving of anything in good part, and as if it were a tacit agreement to a preceding act, which might have been defeated or avoided if such acceptance had not been made. The act of a person to whom a thing is offered or tendered by another, whereby he receives the thing with the intention of retaining it, such intention being evidenced by a sufficient act. -- (Black's 6th)

Acceptance:

contracts. An agreement to receive something which has been offered.
     2. To complete the contract, the acceptance must be absolute and past recall, 10 Pick. 826; 1 Pick. 278; and communicated to the party making the offer at the time and place appointed. 4. Wheat. R. 225; 6 Wend. 103.
     3. In many cases acceptance of a thing waives the right which the party receiving before had; as, for example, the acceptance of rent after notice to quit, in general waives. the notice. See Co. Litt. 211, b; Id. 215, a.; and Notice to quit.
     4. The acceptance may be express, as when it is openly declared by the party to be bound by it; or implied, as where the party acts as if he had accepted. The offer, and acceptance must be in some medium understood by, both parties; it may be language, symbolical, oral or written.  For example, persons deaf and dumb may contract by symbolical or written language.  At auction sales, the contract, generally symbolical; a nod, a wink, or some other sign by one party, imports that he makes an offer, and knocking down a hammer by the other, that he agrees to it. 3 D. & E. 148.  This subject is further considered under the articles Assent and Offer, (q v.)
     5. Acceptance of a bill of exchange the act by which the drawee or other person evinces his assent or intention to comply with and be bound by, the request contained in a bill of exchange to pay the same; or in other words, it is an engagement to pay the bill when due. 4 East, 72.  It will be proper to consider, 1, by whom the acceptance ought to be made; 2, the time
when it is to be made; 3, the form of the acceptance; 4, its extent or effect.
     6.-1. The acceptance must be made by the drawee himself, or by one authorized by him. On the presentment of a bill, the holder has a right to insist upon such an acceptance by the drawee as will subject him at all events to the payment of the bill, according to its tenor; consequently such drawee must have capacity to contract, and to bind himself to pay the amount
of the bill, or it, may be treated as dishonored. Marius, 22. See 2 Ad. & EH. N. S. 16, 17.
     7.-2. As to the time when, a bill ought to be accepted, it may be before the bill is drawn; in this case it must be in writing; 3 Mass. 1; or it may be after it is drawn; when the bill is presented, the drawee must accept the bill within twenty-four hours after presentment, or it should be treated as dishonored. Chit. Bills, 212. 217. On the refusal to accept, even within the twenty-four hours, it should be protested. Chit. Bills, 217.  The acceptance may be made after the bill is drawn, and before it becomes due or after the time appointed for payment 1 H. Bl. 313; 2 Green, R. 339 ; and even after refusal to accept so as to bind the acceptor.
     8. The acceptance may also be made supra protest, which is the acceptance of the bill, after protest for non-acceptance by the drawee, for the honor of the drawer, or a particular endorser. When a bill has been accepted supra protest for the honor of one party to the bill, it may be accepted supra protest, by another individual, for the honor of another.
Beawes, tit.  Bills of Exchange, pl. 52; 5 Campb. R. 447.
     9.-3. As to the form of the acceptance, it is clearly established it may be in writing on the bill itself, or on another paper, 4 East, 91; or it may be verbal, 4 East, 67; 10 John. 207; 3 Mass. 1; or it may be expressed or implied.
    10. An express acceptance is an agreement in direct and express terms to pay a bill of exchange, either by the party on whom it is drawn, or by some other person, for the honor of some of the parties. It is Usually in the words accepted or accepts, but other express words showing an engagement to pay the bill will be equally binding.
    11. An implied acceptance is an agreement to pay a bill, not by direct and express terms, but by any acts of the party from which an express agreement may be fairly inferred. For example, if the drawee writes "seen," "presented," or any, other thing upon it, (as the day on which it becomes due,) this, unless explained by other circumstances, will constitute an acceptance.
    12.-4. An acceptance in regard to its extent and effect, may be either absolute, conditional, or partial.
    13. An absolute acceptance is a positive engagement to pay the bill according   to its tenor, and is usually made by writing on the bill "accepted," and subscribing the drawee's name; or by merely writing his name either at the bottom or across the bill. Comb. 401; Vin. Ab. Bills of Exchange, L 4; Bayl. 77; Chit. Bills, 226 to 228. But in order to bind another than the drawee, it is requisite his name should appear. Bayl. 78.
    14. A conditional acceptance is one which will subject the drawee or acceptor to the payment of the money on a contingency, Bayl. 83, 4, 5; Chit. Bills, 234; Holt's C. N. P. 182; 5 Taunt, 344; 1 Marsh. 186.  The holder is not bound to receive such an acceptance, but if he do receive it he must observe its terms. 4 M.& S. 466; 2 W. C. C. R. 485; 1 Campb. 425.
    15. A partial acceptance varies from the tenor of the bill, as where it is made to pay part of the sum for which the bill is drawn, 1 Stra. 214; 2  Wash. C. C. R. 485; or to pay at a different time, Molloy, b. 2, c. 10, s. 20; or place, 4. M.& S. 462.
(Bouviers 1856 6th Ed.)

Acceptor:

"Acceptor" means a drawee who has accepted a draft. UCC 3-103(1). The person who accepts a bill of exchange, (generally the drawee) or who engages to be primarily responsible for it's payment. -- Black's 1st

Accomodation :

An arrangement or engagement made as a favor to another, not upon a consideration recieved. Something done to oblige, usually spoken of a loan of money or commercial paper; also a friendly agreement or composition of differences. The word implies no consideration. While a party's intent may be to aid a maker of a note by lending his credit, if he seeks to accomplish thereby legitimate objectives of his own, and not simply to aid maker, the act is not for accomodation. (Blacks 6th)

Accomodation Party :

One who signs commercial paper in any capacity for purpose of lending his name (i.e. credit) to another party to instrument. Such party is a surety.  (Blacks 6th) UCC 3-419

Account:

Account means any right to payment for goods sold or leased or for services rendered which is not evidenced by an instrument or chattel paper, whether or not it has been earned by performance. All rights to payment earned or unearned under a charter or contract involving the use or rights of a vessel and all rights incident to the charter or contract are accounts. UCC 9-106

To Accrue :

Literally to grow to; as the interest accrues on the principal. Accruing costs are those which become due and are created after judgment of an execution.
     2.-To accrue means also to arise, to happen, to come to pass; as the statute of limitations does not commence running until the cause of action has accrued. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 861; 2 Rawle, 277; 10 Watts, 363; Bac. Abr. Limitation of Actions, D 3. (Bouviers 1856, 6th Ed.)

Accusation :

A formal charge against a person, to the effect that he is guilty of a punishable offense, laid before a court or magistrate having jurisdiction to inquire into the alleged crime. (Blacks 6th)

Action :

"Action" in the sense of a judicial proceeding includes recoupment, counter-claim, set-off, suit in equity, and any other proceedings in which rights are determined.  - UCC 1-201(1)

Action :

Conduct; behavior; something done; the condition of acting; an act or series of acts.

Practice
    The legal and formal demand of one's right from another person or party made and insisted on in a court of justice. Pursuit of right in court, without regard to form of procedure. Form of suit given by law for recovery of that which is one's due. Judicial means of enforcing a right. Judicial remedy for the enforcement or protection of a right.
    An ordinary proceeding in a court of justice by which one party prosecutes another for the enforcement or protection of a right, the redress or prevention of a wrong, or the punishment of a public offense. (Black's 4th)

Adjudication :

The giving or pronouncing a judgement or decree in a cause; also the judgement given. Or the entry of a decree by a court in respect to the parties in a case.

    It implies a hearing by a court, after notice, of legal evidence on the factual issue involved. The equivalent of a "determination." And contemplates that the claims of all the parties thereto have been considered and set at rest. The term is principally used in bankruptcy proceedings, the adjudication being the order which declares the debtor to be bankrupt.  (Black's 4th)

Affidavit :

A written or printed declaration or statement of facts, made voluntarily, and confirmed by the oath or affirmation of the party making it, taken before an officer with authority to administer such oath. (Blacks 1st)

Agreement :

"Agreement" means the bargain of the parties in fact as found in their language or by implication from other circumstances including course of dealing or usage of trade or course of performance as provided in this code. Whether an agreement has legal consequences is determined by the provisions of this code, if applicable; otherwise by the law of contracts. (Section 1-103).  UCC 1-201(3)

Allege :

To state, recite, assert, or charge; to make an allegation. To affirm, assert, or declare. (Blacks 4th)

Alleged :

Stated; recited; claimed; asserted; charged.  (Blacks 4th)

Arraignment :

crim. law practice. Signifies the calling of the defendant to the bar of the court, to answer the accusation contained in the indictment.
It consists of three parts.
     2.-1. Calling the defendant to the bar by his name, and commanding him to hold up his hand; this is done for the purpose of completely identifying the prisoner, as the person named in the indictment; the holding up his hand is not, however, indispensable, for if the prisoner should refuse to do so, he may be identified by any admission that he is the person intended. 1 Bl. Rep. 3.
     3.-2. The reading of the indictment to enable him fully to understand, the charge to be produced against him; The mode in which it is read is, after' saying, "A B, hold up your hand," to proceed, "you stand indicted by the name of A B, late of, &c., for that you on, &c." and then go through the whole of the indictment.
     4.-3. After this is concluded, the clerk proceeds to the third part, by adding, "How say you, A B, are you guilty or not guilty?" Upon this, if the prisoner, confesses the charge, the confession is recorded, and nothing further is done till judgment if, on the contrary, he answers "not guilty", that plea is entered for him, and the clerk or attorney general, replies that he is guilty; when an issue is formed. Vide generally, Dalt. J. h.t.; Burn's J. h.t.; Williams; J. h.t.; 4 Bl. Com. 322;  Harg. St. Tr. 4 vol.
777, 661; 2 Hale, 219; Cro. C. C. 7; 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 414.  (Bouviers 1856 6th Ed.)

Artificial :

Created by Art, or by law; existing only by force of, or in contemplation of law. (Blacks 1st)

Artificial Person :

In a figurative sense, a body of men or company are sometimes called an artificial person, because the law associates them as
one, and gives them various powers possessed by natural persons. Corporations are such artificial persons. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 177.  (Bouviers 1856 6th Ed.)

Assumpsit :

contracts. An undertaking either express or implied, to perform a parol agreement. 1 Lilly's Reg. 132.
     2. An express assumpsit is where one undertakes verbally or in writing, not under seal, or by matter of record, to perform an act, or to pa a sum of money to another.
     3. An implied assumpsit is where one has not made any formal promise to do an act or to pay a sum of money to another, but who is presumed from his conduct to have assumed to do what is in point of law just and right; for, 1st, it is to be presumed that no one desires to enrich himself at the expense of another; 2d, it is a rule that he who desires the antecedent, must abide by the consequent; as, if I receive a loaf of bread or a newspaper daily sent to my house without orders, and I use it without objection, I am presumed to have accepted the terms upon which the person sending it had in contemplation, that I should pay a fair price for it; 3d, it is also a rule that every one is presumed to assent to what is useful to him. See Assent  (Bouviers 1856 6th Ed.)

Attach :

When the three basic prerequisites of security interest exist (agreement, value, and collateral) the security agreement becomes enforceable between the parties and is said to "attach".  (Blacks 6th) - UCC 9-203

Attachment :

The act or process of taking, apprehending, or seizing persons or property, by virtue of a writ, summons, or other judicial order, and bringing the same into the custody of the law; used either for the purpose of bringing a person before the court, of aquiring jurisdiction over the property seized, to compel an appearance, to furnish security for debt or costs, or to arrest a fund in the hands of a third person who may become liable to pay it over. Also the writ or other process for the accomplishment of the purposes above enumerated, this being the more common  use of the word. A remedy ancillary to an action by which plaintiff is enabled to aquire a lien upon property or effects of defendant for satisfaction of judgement which plaintiff may obtain. Though sometimes called an ancillary  or auxiliary proceeding, it is in all essential respects, a suit.

    The purpose is to take defendant's property into legal custody, so that it may be applied on defendant's debt to plaintiff when established.

    At common law, "attachment" was procedure whereby sheriff was commanded to attach a defendant who, after being personally served, disobeyed original writ of summons, by keeping certain of his goods which he would forfeit if he did not appear, or by making him find securities who would be amerced if he continued his nonappearance, and, if after such attachment he still neglected to appear, he would not only forfeit this security, but was compelled by a writ of distringas infinite.  (Black's 4th)

At*torn

(#), v. i. [OF. atorner, aturner, atourner, to direct, prepare, dispose, attorn (cf. OE. atornen to return, adorn); à
(L. ad) + torner to turn; cf. LL. attornare to commit business to another, to attorn; ad + tornare to turn, L. tornare to turn in a
lathe, to round off. See Turn, v. t.]  (Websters 1913)

1. (Feudal Law) To turn, or transfer homage and service, from one lord to another. This is the act of feudatories, vassals, or
tenants, upon the alienation of the estate. Blackstone.

2. (Modern Law) To agree to become tenant to one to whom reversion has been granted.

attorney: [e-'ter-ne]

 pl: -neys
 Anglo-French atorné legal representative, from past participle of atorner to
 designate, appoint, from Old French, to prepare, arrange see attorn

 : a person authorized to act on another's behalf   (Websters Law 1996)(Findlaw.com)

Bail :

practice, contracts. By bail is understood sureties, given according  to law, to insure the appearance of a party in court. The persons who become  surety are called bail. Sometimes the term is applied, with a want of  exactness, to the security given by a defendant, in order to obtain a stay  of execution, after judgment, in civil cases., Bail is either civil or criminal.  (Bouviers 1856 6th Ed.)

Bail :

n. Monetary amount for or condition of pretrial release from custody, normally set by a judge at the initial appearance. The purpose of bail is to insure the appearance of the accused at subsequent proceedings. If the accused is unable to make bail or otherwise unable to be released on his or her own recognizance, he or she is detained in custody. The Eighth Amendment (U.S. Constitution) provides that excessive bail shall not be required.  -- The surety or sureties who procure the release of a person under arrest, by becoming rewsponsible for his appearance at the time and place designated. Those persons who become sureties for the appearance of the defendant in court. (Blacks 6th)

Bailee :

"Bailee" means the person who, by a warehouse receipt, bill of lading, or other document of title, acknowledges possession of goods and contracts to deliver them.  UCC 7-102(1)(a)

Bailee :

In the law of contracts. One to whom goods are bailed; the party to whom personal property is delivered under a contract of bailment. A species of agent to whom something moveable is committed in trust for another. (Blacks 4th)

Bailiff :

One to whom some authority, care, guardianship, or jurisdiction is delivered, committed, or intrusted; one who is deputed or appointed to take charge of another's affairs; an overseer or superintendent; a keeper, protector, or guardian; a steward. A sheriff's officer or deputy. A court attendant sometimes called a tipstaff.

A magistrate, who formerly administered justice in the parliaments or courts of France, answering to the English Sheriffs as mentioned by Bracton.

A person acting in a ministerial capacity who has by delivery the custody and administration of lands or goods for the benefit of the owner or bailor, and is liable to render an account thereof.  (Blacks 4th)

Bank :

"Bank" means any person engaged in the business of banking.  UCC 1-201

Bank :

A bench or seat; the bench of justice; the bench or tribunal occupied by the judges; the seat of judgement; a court. The full bench, or  full court; the assembly of all the judges of a court.

An acclivity; an elevation or mound of earth, especially that which borders the sides of a water course.

An institution, of great value in the commercial world, empowered to receive deposits of money to make loans, and to issue it's promissory notes (designated to circulate as money, and commonly called "bank-notes" or "bank-bills", ) or to perform any one or more of these functions.

The house or place where the business of banking is carried on.    (Blacks 4th)

Bank Acceptance :

Draft drawn on and accepted by bank.  (Bouviers 3rd)

Banker :

A private person who keeps a bank; one is who engaged in the business of banking.

Individual Banker -- Under some statutes, an individual banker, as distinguished from a "prvate banker" (q.v.), is a person who having complied with the statutory requirements, has received authority from the state to engage in the business of banking, while a private banker is a person is engaged in banking without having any special privileges or authority from the state.

Private Banker -- One who carries on the business of banking without being incorporated. One who carries on the business of banking by receiving money on deposit with or without interest, by buying and selling bills of exchange, promissory notes, gold or silver coin, bullion, uncurrent money, bonds or stock, or other securities, and by loaning money without being incorporated.  (Blacks 4th)

Banker's Acceptance :

A bill of exchange draft payable at maturity that is drawn by a creditor against his or her debtor. Banker's acceptances are short-term credit instruments most commonly used by persons or firms engaged in international trade. They are comparable to short-term government securities (for example, Treasury Bills) and may be sold on the open market at a discount.  (Blacks 6th)

Banker's Note :

contracts. In England a distinction is made between bank notes, (q. v.) and bankers' notes. The latter are promissory notes, and resemble bank notes in every respect, except that they are given by persons acting as private bankers. 6 Mod. 29; 3 Chit. Com. Law, 590; 1 Leigh's N. P. 338.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Bankruptcy :

Popularly defined as insolvency, the inability of a debtor to p[ay his debts as they become due. Technically, however, it is the legal process under the Federal Bankruptcy Act by which assets of the debtor are liquidated as quickly as possible to pay off his creditors and to discharge the bankrupt, or free him of his debts, so he can start anew. In reorganization, on the other hand, liquidation may be avoided and the debtor may continue to function, pay his creditors, and carry on business.  (Barron's 3rd)

Barratry :

In criminal law. Also spelled "Barretry". The offence of frequently exciting and stirring up quarrals and suits, either at law or otherwise. Common barratry is the practice of exciting groundless judicial proceedings. Penal Code Cal. Section 158; In Maritime law. An act commited by the master or mariners of a vessal, for some unlawful or fraudulent purpose, contrary to their duty to the owners, whereby the latter sustain injury. (Blacks 4th)

Bench Warrant :

Process issued by the court itself, or "from the bench," for the attachment or arrest of a person; either in case of contempt, or where an indictment has been found, or to bring in a witness who does not obey the subpoena. So called to distinguish it from a warrant, issued by a justice of the peace, alderman, or commissioner. (Black's 4th)

Bench Warrant :

crim. law. The name of a process sometimes given to an attachment issued by order of a criminal court, against an individual for some contempt, or for the purpose of arresting a person accused; the latter is seldom granted unless when a true bill has been found.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Bill :

A written statement of the terms of a contract, or specification of the items of a contract or of a demand. Also, a general name for any item of indebtedness, whether receivable or payable.  (Blacks 6th)

The creditor's written statement of his claim, specifying the items.  (Black's 1st)

The creditor's written statement of his claim, specifying the items. It differs from an account stated in this, that a bill is the creditor's statement; an account stated is a statement that has been assented to by both parties.  (Bouvier's 3rd)

A formal declaration, complaint, or statement of particular things in writing.
As a legal term, this word has many meanings and applications, the more important of which are enumerated below.
1. A formal written statement of complaint to a court of justice.
    In the ancient practice of the court of king's bench, the usual and orderly method of beginning an action was by a bill, or original bill, or plaint. This was a written statement of the plaintiff's cause of action, like a declaration or complaint, and always alleged a trespass as the ground of it, in order to give the court jurisdiction. (Bill Chamber, Bill of Privilege, Bill of Proof)
2. A species of writ.
    A formal written declaration by a court to it's officers, in the nature of process. (Bill of Middlesex)
3. A formal written petition
    To a superior court for action to be taken in a cause already determined, or a record or certified account of the proceedings in such action or some portion thereof, accompanying such a petition. (Bill of advocation, Bill of certiorari, Bill of evidence, Bill of exceptions)
4. In equity practice.
    A formal written complaint, in the nature of a petition, addressed by a suitor in chancery to the chancellor or to a court of equity or a court having equitable jurisdiction, showing the names of the parties, stating the facts which make up the case and the complainant's allegations, averring that the acts disclosed are contrary to equity, and praying for process and for specific relief, or for such relief as the circumstances demand. (Bill for a new trial, Bill for foreclosure, Bill for fraud, Bill in aid of execution, Bill in nature of a bill of review, Bill in nature of a bill of revivor, Bill in nature of a supplemental bill, Bill in nature of interpleader, Bill of conformity, Bill of discovery, Bill of information, Bill of interpleader, Bill of peace, Bill of review, Bill of revivor, Cross-bill, ...........)
5. In legislation and constitutional law
    The word means a draft of an act of the legislature before it becomes a law; a proposed or projected law. A draft of an act presented to the legislature, but not enacted. Also, a special act passed by a legislative body in the exercise of a quasi judicial power.
6. A solumn and formal legislative declaration of popular rights and liberties.
    Promulgated on certain extraordinary occasions, as the famous Bill of Rights in English history. (Bill of Rights)
7. In the law of contracts.
    An obligation; a deed whereby the obligor acknowledges himself to owe to the obligee a certain sum of money or some other thing. It may be indented or poll, and with or without a penalty.  (Bill obligatory, Bill of debt, Bill penal, Bill single)
8. In commercial law.
    A written statement of the terms of a contract, or specification of the items of a transaction or of a demand; also a general name for any item of indebtedness, whether receivable or payable.
    Accounts for goods sold, services rendered, or work done.
as a verb, as generally and customarily used in commecial transactions, "bill" is synonymous with "charge" or "invoice".  (Bill -book, Bill-head, Bill of lading, Bill of parcels, Bill of sale, Bill payable, Bill receivable, Bill rendered, Grand bill of sale)
9. In the law of negotiable instruments.
    A promissory obligation for the payment of money.
    Standing alone or without qualifying words, the term is understoof to mean a bank note, United States treasury note, or other piece of paper circulating as money. (Bill of credit, Bill of exchange, Domestic Bill of Exchange, Foreign Bill of Exchange, Inland bill of exchange)
10. In Maritime law.
    The term is applied to contracts of various sorts, but chiefly to bills of lading and to bills of adventure.  (Bill of adventure, Bill of gross adventure, Bill of health)
11. In revenue law and procedure.
    The term is given to various documents filed in or issuing from a custom house, principally  of the sorts described below.  (Bill of entry, Bill of sight, Bill of store, Bill of sufferance)
12. In criminal law.
    A bill of indictment, see infra. (Bill of Appeal, Bill of indictment)
-- Bill of appeal. An ancient, but now abolished, method of criminal prosecution.
-- Bill of indictment. A formal written document accusing a person or persons named  of having committed a felony or misdemeanor, lawfully laid before a grand jury for their action upon it.
If the grand jury decide that a trial ought to be had, they indorse on it "a true bill;" if otherwise, "not a true bill" or "not found."
13. In common law practice
    An itemized statement statement or specification of particular details, especially items of cost or charge (Bill of costs, Bill of particulars)
14. In English law
    A draft of a patent for a charter, commission, dignity, office, or appointment

Bill, True :

A true bill is an indictment approved of by a grand jury. Vide Billa Vera; True Bill.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Bill of Exchange :

A written order from A. to B., directing B. to pay C. a certain sum of money therein named. A bill of exchange is an instrument, negotiable in form, by which one, who is called the "drawer", requests another, called the "drawee", to pay a specified sum of money. A bill of exchange is an order by one person, called the "drawer" or "maker", to another, called the "drawee" or "acceptor", to pay money to another, (who may be the drawer himself,) called the "payee", or his order, or to the bearer. If the payee, or a bearer, transfers the bill by endorsement, he then becomes the "indorser".  (Black's 1st

Bond :

A certificate or evidence of a debt on which the issuing company or governmental body promises to pay the bondholders a specified amount of interest for a specified length of time, and to repay the loan on the expiration date. A long term debt instrument that promises to pay the lender a series of periodic interest payments in addition to returning the principal at maturity. In every case a bond represents debt - it's holder is a creditor of the corporation and not a part owner as is the shareholder.  (Black's 6th)

Bondage :

Slavery; involuntary personal servitude; captivity  (Black's  4th)

Calender :

crim. law. A list of prisoners, containing their names, the time when they were committed, and by whom, and the cause of their commitments.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Calendar of Prisoners :

In English practice. A list kept by the Sheriffs containing the names of all the prisoners in their custody, with the several judgments against each in the margin.  (Blacks 4th)

Special Calendar :

A calender of list of causes, containing those set down specially for hearing, trial, or arguement.  (Black's 4th)

Calendar Year :

The period from January 1st to December 31, inclusively.  (Black's 4th)

Call :

n. Contract language.
    As used in contract, means demand for payment of, especially by formal notice.

Conveyancing
    A visible natural object or landmark designated in a patent, entry, grant, or other conveyance of lands, as a limit or boundary to the land described, with which the points of surveying must correspond. Also the courses and distances designated.

Corporation Law
    A demand by directors upon subscribers for shares for payment of a portion or installment; in this sense, it is capable of three meanings: (1) The resolution of the directors to levy the assessment; (2) its notification to the persons liable to pay; (3) the time when it becomes payable.
Although the terms "call" and "assessment" are often used synonymously, the latter term applies with peculiar aptness to contributions above the par value of stock or the subscription liability of the stockholders.

Dealings in Futures
    Deposit of more margin.

Dealings in Securities or Grain
    Option or right to demand a certain amount of securities or grain at a fixed price at or within certain time agreed on. (Black's 4th)

Call : v.

To summon or demand by name; to demand the presence and participation of a number of persons by calling aloud their names, either in a pre-arranged and systematic order or in a succession determined by chance.
Terms "called" and "sold" are equivalent.

Call of the House, Calling a Summons, Calling an Election,
Calling the Docket
    The public calling of the docket or list of causes at commencement of term of court for setting a time for trial or entering orders of continuance, default, nonsuit, etc.  (Black's 4th)

Camera :

In old English law. A chamber, room, or apartment; a judge's chamber; a treasury; a chest or coffer. Also, a stipend payable from vassal to lord; an annuity. See In Camera  (Black's 4th)

Case :

Action, cause, suit, or controversy.
    A general term for an action, cause, suit, or controversy, at law or in equity; a question contested before a court of justice; an aggregate of facts which furnishes occasion for the exercise of the jurisdiction of a court of justice.
The word "case' or "cause" means a judicial proceeding for the determination of a controversy between parties wherein rights are enforced or protected, or wrongs are prevented, or redressed. Any proceeding judicial in it's nature.

Cases and controversies
    This term, as used in the constitution of the United States, embraces claims or contentions of litigants brought before the court for adjudication by regular proceedings established for the protection or enforcement of rights, or the prevention, redress or punishment of wrongs. ; and whenever the claim or contention of a party takes such a form that the judicial power is capable of acting upon it, it has become a case or controversy.  (Black's 4th)

Case :

remedies. This is the name of an action in very general use, which lies where a party sues for damages for any wrong or cause of complaint to which covenant or trespass will not lie. Steph. Pl. 153 Wodd. 167 Ham. N. P.
1. Vide Writ of trespass on the case. In its most comprehensive signification, case includes assumpsit as well as an action in form ex delicto; but when simply mentioned, it is usually understood to mean an action in form ex delicto. 7 T. R. 36. It is a liberal action; Burr, 906, 1011 1 Bl. Rep. 199; bailable at common law. 2 Barr 927-8; founded on the justice and conscience of the Tiff's case, and is in the nature of a bill in equity 3 Burr, 1353, 1357 and the substance of a count in case is the damage
assigned. 1 Bl. Rep. 200.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Cash :

Money or it's equivalent; usually ready money.  (Black's 4th)

commerce. Money on hand, which a merchant, trader or other person has to do business with.
     2. Cash price, in contracts, is the price of articles paid for in cash, in contradistinction to the credit price. Pard. n. 85; Chipm. Contr. 110. In common parlance, bank notes are considered as cash; but bills receivable are not.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Cause :

practice. A Contested question before a court of justice; it is a Suit or action. Causes are civil or criminal. Wood's Civ. Law, 302; Code, 2, 416.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Cause of Action :

By this phrase is understood the right to bring an action, which implies, that there is some person in existence who can assert, and also a person who can lawfully be sued; for example, where the payee of a bill was dead at the time when it fell due, it was held the cause of action did not accrue, and consequently the statute of limitations did not begin to run until letters of administration had been obtained by some one. 4 Bing. 686.
     2. There is no cause of action till the claimant can legally sue, therefore the statute of limitations does not run from the making of a promise, if it were to perform something at a future time, but only from the expiration of that time, though, when the obligor promises to pay on demand, or generally, without specifying day, he may be sued immediately, and then the cause of action has accrued. 5 Bar. & Cr. 860; 8 Dowl. & R. 346.When a wrong has been committed, or a breach of duty has occurred, the cause of action has accrued, though the claimant may be ignorant of it. 3 Barn. & Ald. 288, 626 5 B. & C. 259; 4 C. & P. 127.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Chamber of Accounts :

In French law. A sovereign court, of great antiquity, in Franch, which took cognizance of and registered the accounts of the king's revenue; nearlt the same as the English court of exchequer.  (Black's 4th)

Chamber of Commerce :

A society of the principal merchants and traders of a city, who meet to promote the general trade and commerce of the place. Some of these are incorporated, as in Philadelphia.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Charge:

v. To impose a burden, obligation or lien; to create a claim against property; to claim, to demand; to instruct a jury on matters of law.   n. In general. An incumbrance, lien, or burden; an obligation, or duty; a liability; an accusation.  In contracts. An obligation, binding upon him who enters into it, which may be removed or taken away by a discharge.   (Black's 1st)

Conversion of electrical energy into chemical energy within a cell or storage battery.  (Black's 4th)

In criminal law
    An accusation or oral charge. A formal complaint, information, or indictment. A count.  (Black's 4th)

Charge and Discharge :

Under former equity practice, in taking an account before a master, a written statement of items for which plaintiff asked credit and a counter-statement, exhibiting claims or demands defendant held against plaintiff.  (Black's 4th)

Charge-Back :

(a) A collecting bank has a security interest in an item and any accompanying documents or the proceeds of either:...(2) In case of an item for which it has given credit available for withdrawal as of right, to the extent of the credit given, whether or not the credit is drawn upon or there is a right of charge-back.  (UCC 4-210(a)(2)

Charge-Sheet :

A paper kept at a police station to receive each night the names of the persons brought and given into custody, the nature of the accusation, and the name of the accuser in each case.  (Black's 4th)

Charges :

The expenses which have been incurred, or disbursements made, in connection with a contract, suit or business transaction. Spoken of an action, it is said that the term includes more than what falls under the technical description of "costs."  (Black's 4th)

Chattels, property :

A term which includes all hinds of property, except the freehold or things which are parcel of it. It is a more extensive term than
goods or effects. Debtors taken in execution, captives, apprentices, are accounted chattels. Godol. Orph. Leg. part 3, chap. 6, Sec. 1.
     2. Chattels are personal or real. Personal, are such as belong immediately to the person of a man; chattels real, are such as either appertain not immediately to the person, but to something by way of dependency, as a box with the title deeds of lands; or such as are issuing out of some real estate, as a lease of lands, or term of years, which pass like personally to the executor of the owner. Co. Litt. 118; 1 Chit. Pr. 90; 8 Vin. Ab. 296; 11 Vin. Ab. 166; 14 Vin. Ab. 109; Bac. Ab. Baron, &c. C 2; 2
Kent, Com. 278; Dane's Ab. Index, h.t.; Com. Dig. Biens, A; Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t. CHEAT, criminal law, torts. A cheat is a deceitful practice, of a public nature, in defrauding another of a known right, by some artful device, contrary to the plain rules of common honesty. 1 Hawk. 343.
     2. To constitute a cheat, the offence must be, 1st. of a public nature for every species of fraud and dishonesty in transactions between individuals is not the subject-matter of a criminal charge at common law; it must be such as is calculated to defraud numbers, and to deceive the people in general. 2 East, P. C. 816; 7 John. R. 201; 14 John. R. 371; 1 Greenl. R.
387; 6. Mass. R. 72; 9 Cowen, R. 588; 9 Wend. R. 187; 1 Yerg. R. 76; 1 Mass. 137. 2. The cheating must be done by false weights, false measures, false tokens, or the like, calculated to deceive numbers. 2 Burr, 1125; 1 W. Bl. R. 273; Holt, R. 354.
     3. That the object of the defendant in defrauding the prosecutor was successful. If unsuccessful, it is a mere attempt. (q.v.) 2 Mass. 139. When two or more enter into an agreement to cheat, the offence is a conspiracy. (q.v.) To call a man a cheat is slanderous. Hetl. 167; 1 Roll's Ab. 53; 2 Lev. 62. Vide Illiterate; Token.

Chattel Paper :

"Chattel Paper" means a writing or writings which evidence boht a monetary obligation and a security interest in a lease of specified goods, but a charter or other contract involving the use or hire of a vessel is not chattel paper. When a transaction is evidenced by both a security agreement or a lease and by an instrument or series of instruments, the group of writings taken together constitutes chattel paper.   -- UCC 9-105(b)

City :

In England
    An incorporated town or borough which is or has been the see of a bishop.
A large town, incorporated with certain privileges. The inhabitants of a city. The citizens.

In America
    A municipal corporation. Also a territory within the corporate limits.  (Black's 4th)

Civil Death, persons :

The change of the state (q.v.) of a person who is declared civilly dead by judgment of a competent tribunal. In such case, the
person against whom such sentence is pronounced is considered dead. 2 John. R. 218. See Gilb. Uses, 150; 2 Bulst. 188; Co. tit. 132; Jenk. Cent. 250; 1 Keble, 398; Prest. on Convey. 140. Vide Death, civil. (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Civil Law :

That body of law which every partical nation, commonwealth, or city has established peculiarly for itself; more properly called "municipal" law, to distinguish it from the "law of nature", and from international law. The system of jurisprudence held and administered in the Roman Empire, particularly as set forth in the compilation of Justinian and his successors -- comprising the institutes, Code, Digest, and Novels, and collectively denominated the "Corpus Juris Civilis", -- as distinguished from the common law of England and Canon law.  (Black's 6th)

Claim:

A challenge of property or ownership of a thing which is wrongfully withheld; to demand as one's own; to assert. A right or title.  To state; to urge; to insist.  (Black's 4th)

Clearing House, com. law :

Among the English bankers, the clearing house is a place in Lombard street, in London, where the bankers of that city daily
settle with each other the balances which they owe, or to which they are entitled. Desks are placed around the room, one of which is appropriated to each banking house, and they are: occupied in alphabetical order. Each clerk has a box or drawer along side of him, and the name of the house he represents is inscribed over his head. A clerk of each house comes in about
half past three o'clock in the afternoon, and brings the drafts or checks on the other bankers, which have been paid by his house that day, and deposits them in their proper drawers. The clerk at the desk credits their accounts separately which they have against him, as found in the drawer. Balances are thus struck from all the accounts, and the claims transferred from one to
another, until they are so wound up and cancelled, that each clerk has only to settle with two or three others, and the balances are immediately paid. When drafts are paid at so late an hour that they cannot be cleared that day, they are sent to the houses on which they are drawn, to be marked, that is, a memorandum is made on them, and they are to be cleared the next day.
See Gilbert's Practical Treatise on Banking, pp. 16-20, Babbage on the Economy of Machines, n. 173, 174; Kelly's Cambist; Byles, on Bills, 106, 110; Pulling's Laws and Customs of London, 437.   (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Clerk :

commerce, contract. A person in the employ of a merchant, who attends only to a part of his business, while the merchant himself superintends the whole. He differs from a factor in this, that the latter wholly supplies the place of his principal in respect to the property consigned to him. Pard. Dr. Com. n. 38, 1 Chit. Pract. 80; 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 1287.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Clerk :

officer. A person employed in an office, public or private, for keeping records or accounts. His business is to write or register, in proper form, the transactions of the tribunal or body to which he belongs. Some clerks, however, have little or no writing to do in their offices, as, the clerk of the market, whose duties are confined chiefly to superintending the markets. In the English law, clerk also signifies a clergyman.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Code :

A system used for brevity or secrecy of communication, in which arbitrarily chosen words, letters, or symbols are assigned definite meanings.  (Webster's)

A collection, compendium or revision of laws. A complete system of positive law, scientifically arranged and promulgated by legislative authority.  (Black's 4th)

Cognisance :

practice. Sometimes signifies jurisdiction and judicial power, an sometimes the hearing of a matter judicially. It is a term used in the acknowledgment of a fine. See Vaughan's Rep. 207.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Collateral :

"Collateral" means the property subject to a security interest, and includes accounts and chattel paper which have been sold.  UCC 9-105(c)

Commerce :

trade, contracts. The exchange of commodities for commodities; considered in a legal point of view, it consists in the various agreements which have for their object to facilitate the exchange of the products of the earth or industry of man, with an intent to realize a profit. Pard. Dr. Coin. n. 1. In a narrower sense, commerce signifies any reciprocal agreements between two persons, by which one delivers to the other a thing, which the latter accepts, and for which he pays a consideration; if the consideration be money, it is called a sale; if any other thing than money, it is called exchange or barter. Domat, Dr. Pub. liv. 1, tit. 7, s. 1, n. 2. Congress have power by the constitution to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. 1 Kent. 431; Story on Const. Sec. 1052, et seq. The sense in which the word commerce is used in the constitution seems not only to include traffic, but intercourse and navigation. Story, Sec. 1057; 9 Wheat. 190, 191, 215, 229; 1 Tuck. Bl. App. 249 to 252. Vide 17 John. R. 488; 4 John. Ch. R. 150; 6 John. Ch. R. 300; 1 Halst. R. 285; Id. 236; 3 Cowen R. 713; 12 Wheat. R. 419; 1 Brock. R. 423; 11 Pet. R. 102; 6 Cowen, R. 169; 3 Dana, R. 274; 6 Pet. R.
515; 13 S. & R. 205.   (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Commercial Law :

A phrase used to designate the whole body of substantive jurisprudence (e.g. Uniform Commercial Code, Truth in Lending Act) applicable to the rights, intercourse, of persons engaged in commerce, trade or mercantile pursuits.  (Black's 6th)

Commercial Paper :

Bills of exchange, promissory notes, bank-checks, and other negotiable instruments for the payment of money, which, by their form and on their face, purport to be such instruments as are, by the law-merchant, recognized as falling under the designation of "commercial paper". Negotiable paper given in due course of business, whether the element of negotiability be given it by the law-merchant or by statute.  (Black's 4th)

To Commit :

To send a person to prison by virtue of a warrant or other lawful writ, for the commission of a crime, offence or misdemeanor, or for a contempt, or non-payment of a debt.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Committ :

To perpetrate, as a crime; to perform, as an act.
To send a person to prison by virtue of a lawful authority, for any crime or contempt, ot to an asylum, workhouse, reformatory, or the like, by authority of a court or magistrate.
To deliver a defendant to the custody of a sheriff or marshal, on his surrender by his bail.

Commitment :

criminal law, practice. The warrant. or order by which a court or magistrate directs a ministerial officer to take a person to prison. The commitment is either for further hearing, (q.v.) or it is final.
     2. The formal requisites of the commitment are, 1st. that it be in writing, under hand, and seal, and show the authority of the magistrate, and the time and place of making it. 3 Har. & McHen. 113; Charl. 280; 3 Cranch, R. 448; see Harp. R. 313. In this case it is said a seal is not indispensable.
     3. - 2d. It must be made in the name of the United States, or of the commonwealth, or people, as required by the constitution of the United States or, of the several states.
     4. - 3d. It should be directed to the keeper of the prison, and not generally to carry the party to prison. 2 Str. 934; 1 Ld. Raym. 424.
     5. - 4th. The prisoner should be described by his name and surname, or the name he gives as his.
     6. - 5th. The commitment ought to state that the party has been charged on oath. 3 Cranch, R.448. But see 2 Virg. Cas. 504; 2 Bail. R. 290.
     7. - 6th. The particular crime charged against the prisoner should be mentioned with convenient certainty. 3 Cranch, R. 449; 11 St. Tr. 304. 318; Hawk. B. 2, c. 16, s. 16 Chit. Cr. Law, 110.
     8. - 7th. The commitment should point out the place of imprisonment, and not merely direct that the party be taken to prison. 2 Str. 934; 1 Ld. Ray. 424.
     9. - 8th. In a final commitment, the command to the keeper of the prison should be to keep the prisoner "until he shall be discharged by due course of law," when the offence is not bailable; when it is bailable the gaoler should be, directed to keep the prisoner in his "said custody for want of sureties, or until he shall be discharged by due course of law."
When the commitment is not final, it is usual to commit the prisoner "for further hearing." The commitment is also called a mittimus. (q.v.)
    10. The act of sending a person to prison charged with the commission of a crime by virtue of such a warrant is also called a commitment. Vide, generally, 4 Vin. Ab. 576; Bac. Ab. h.t.; 4 Cranch, R. 129; 4 Dall. R. 412; 1 Ashm. R. 248; 1 Cowen, R. 144; 3 Conn. R. 502; Wright, R. 691; 2 Virg. Cas. 276; Hardin, R. 249; 4 Mass. R. 497; 14 John. R. 371 2 Virg. Cas. 594;
1 Tyler, R. 444; U. S. Dig. h.t.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Commitment :

In practice. The warrant or mittimus by which a court or magistrate directs an officer to take a person to prison. Authority for holding in prison one convisted of crime. A process directed to a ministerial officer by which a person is to be confined in prison, usually issued by a court or magistrate.
    A warrant which does not direct an officer to commit a party to prison but only to receive him into custody and safely keep him for further examination, is not a commitment.
    The act of sending a person to prison by means of such a warrant or order.   (Black's 4th)

Communication :

Information given, the sharing of knowledge by one with another; conference; consultation or bargaining preparatory to making a contract. Intercourse; connection. Also, the Masonic equivalent for the word "meeting".  (Black's 4th)

Complaint :

In civil practice
    In those states having a Code of Civil Procedure, the complaint is the first or initiatory pleading on the part of the plaintiff in a civil action. It corresponds to the declaration in the common-law practice.

In criminal law.
    A charge, preferred before a magistrate having jurisdiction, that a person named (or an unknown person) has committed a specified offense, with an offer to prove the fact, to the end that a prosecution may be instituted. It is a technical term, descriptive of proceedings before a magistrate. The complaint is an allegation, made before a proper magistrate, that a person has been guilty of a designated public offense.  (Black's 1st)

In some instances "complaint" is interchangeable with "information".
And is often used interchangeably with "affidavit".   (Black's 4th)

Compulsory Counterclaim :

A pleading shall state as a counterclaim any claim which at the time of serving the pleading the pleader has against any opposing party, if it arises out of the transaction or occurence that is the subject matter of the opposing party's claim and does not require for it's adjudication the presence of third parties of whom the court cannot aquire jurisdiction. But the pleader need not state the claim if the opposing party brought suit by attachment or other process by which the court did not aquire jurisdiction to render a personal judgement on that claim. Fed. R. Civil P. 13(a)  For claim to constitute a compulsory counterclaim, it must be logically related to roiginal claim and and arise out of same subject matter on which original claim is based; many of the same factual legal issues, or offshoots of same basic controversy between parties must be involved in a compulsory counterclaim.  (Black's 6th - Codified at 28 USC Rule 13(a) )

Comptrollers :

There are officers who bear this name, in the treasury department of the United States.
     2. There are two comptrollers. It is the duty of the first to examine all accounts settled by the first and fifth auditors, and certify the balances arising thereon to the register; to countersign all warrants drawn by the secretary.of the treasury, other than those drawn on the requisitions of the secretaries of the war and navy departments, which shall be warranted by law; to report to the secretary the official forms to be issued in the different offices for collecting the public revenues, and the manner and form of stating the accounts of the several persons employed therein; and to superintend the preservation of the public accounts, subject to his revision; and to provide for the payment of all moneys which may be collected. Act of March 3, 1817, sect. 8; Act of Sept. 2, 1789, s. 2 Act of March 7, 1822.
     3. To superintend the recovery of all debts due to the United States; to direct suits and legal proceedings, and to take such measures as may be authorized by the laws, to enforce prompt payment of all such debt; Act of March 3, 1817, sect. 10; Act of Sept. 2, 1789, s. 2; to lay before congress annually, during the first week of their session, a list of such officers as shall have failed in that year to make the settlement required by law; and a statement of the accounts in the treasury, war, and navy departments, which may have remained more than three years unsettled, or on which balances appear to have been due more than three years prior to the thirteenth day of September, then last past; together with a statement of the causes which
have prevented a settlement of the accounts, or the recovery of the balances due to the United States. Act of March 3, 1809, sect. 2.
     4. Besides these, this officer is required to perform minor duties, which the plan of this work forbids to be enumerated here.
     5. His salary is three thousand five hundred dollars per annum. Act of Feb. 20, 1804, s. 1.
     6. The duties of the second comptroller are to examine all accounts settled by the second, third and fourth auditors, and certify the balances arising -thereon to the secretary of the department in which the expenditure has been incurred; to counter-sign all the warrants drawn by the secretary of the treasury upon the requisition of the secretaries of the war and navy
departments, which shall be warranted by law; to report to the said secretaries the official forms to be issued in the different offices for disbursing public money in those departments, and the manner and form of keeping and stating the accounts of the persons employed therein, and to superintend the preservation of public accounts subject to his revision. His salary is three thousand dollars per annum. Act of March 3, 1817, s. 9 and 15; Act of May 7, 1822.
     7. A similar officer exists in several of the states, whose official title is comptroller of the public accounts, auditor general, or other title descriptive of the duties of the office.   (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Comptroller :

A public officer of a state or municipal corporation, charged with certain duties in relation to the fiscal affairs of the same, principally to examine and audit the accounts of collectors of the public money, to keep records, and report the financial situation from time to time. There are also officers bearing this name in the treasury department of the United States.  (Black's 4th)

Condemn :

To find or adjudge guilty. To adjudge or sentence. To adjudge (as an admiralty court) that a vessel is a prize, or that she is unfit for service. To set apart or expropriate property for public use, in the exercise of the power of eminent domain.  (Black's 4th)

Condemnation :

In admiralty law. The judgement or sentence of a court having jurisdiction and acting in rem, by which (1) it is declared that a vessel which has been captured at sea as a prize was lawfully so siezed and is liable to be treated as prize; or (2) that property which has been seized for an alleged violation of the revenue laws, neutrality laws, navigation laws, etc. was lawfully so seized, and is, for such cause, forfeited to the government; or (3) that the vessel which is the subject of inquiry is unfit and unsafe for navigation.

In the civil law. A sentence or judgement which condemns someone to do, to give, or to pay something, or which declares that his claim or pretentions are unfounded.

In real property law. The process by which  property of a private owner is taken for public use, without his consent, but upon the award and payment of just compensation, being in the nature of a forced sale and condemner stands toward owner as buyer toward seller.  (Black's 4th)

Condemnation :

mar. law. The sentence or judgment of a court of competent jurisdiction that a ship or vessel taken as a prize on the high seas, was liable to capture, and was properly and legally captured.
     2. By the general practice of the law of nations, a sentence of condemnation is, at present, generally deemed necessary in order to divest the title of a vessel taken as a prize. Until this has been done the original owner may regain his property, although the ship may have been in possession of the enemy twenty-four hours, or carried infra praesidia. 1 Rob. Rep. 134; 3 Rob. Rep. 97, n.; Carth. 423; Chit. Law of Nat. 99, 100; 10 Mod. 79; Abb. on Sh. 14; Wesk. on Ins. h.t.; Marsh. on Ins. 402. A sentence of condemnation is generally binding everywhere. Marsh. on Ins. 402.
     3. The term condemnation is also applied to the sentence which declares a ship to be unfit for service; this sentence and the grounds of it may, however, be re-examined and litigated by parties interested in disputing it. 5 Esp. N. P. C. 65; Abb. on Shipp. 4.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Condemnation :

civil law. A sentence of judgment which condemns some one to do, to give, or to pay something; or which declares that his claim or pretensions are unfounded. This word is also used by common lawyers, though it is more usual to say conviction, both in civil and criminal cases. It is a maxim that no man ought to be condemned unheard, and without the opportunity of being heard.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Conditional Acceptance :

An engagement to pay the draft or accept the offer on the happening of a condition. A "conditional acceptance" is in effect a statement that the offeree is willing to enter into a bargain differing in some respects from that proposed in the original offer. The conditional acceptance is, therefore, itself a counetr-offer. (Black's 6th)

Consent :

A concurrence of wills. Voluntarily yielding the will to the propesition of another; acquiescence or compliance therewith.
"Consent" is an active acquiescence as distinguished from "assent," meaning a silent acquiescence.   (Black's 4th)

Consideration :

Practice. A technical term indicating that a tribunal has heard and judicially determined matters submitted to it.
Contracts. The inducement to a contract. The cause, motive, price, or impelling influence which induces a contracting party to enter into a contract. The reason or material cause of a contract.  (Black's 4th)

Constitution :

contracts. The constitution of a contract, is the making of the contract as, the written constitution of a debt. 1 Bell's Com. 332, 5th ed.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Contempt of Court:

Any act which is calculated to embarrass, hinder, or obstruct court in administration of justice, or which is calculated to lessen it's authority or it's dignity. Contempts are also classed as civil or criminal. The former are those quasi contempts which consists in the failure to do something which the party is ordered by the court to do for the benefit or advantage of another party to the proceedings before the court, while criminal contempts are acts done in disrespect of the court or it's process or which obstruct the administration of justice or tend to bring the court into disrespect. (Blacks 4th)

Contract :

"Contract" means the total legal obligation which results from the parties' agreement as affected by this code and any other applicable rules of law.  UCC 1-201(11)

Contract :

This term, in its more extensive sense, includes every description of agreement, or obligation, whereby one party becomes bound to another to pay a sum of money, or to do or omit to do a certain act; or, a contract is an act which contains a perfect obligation. In its more confined sense, it is an agreement between two or more persons, concerning something to be, done, whereby both parties are hound to each other, *or one is bound to the other. 1 Pow. Contr. 6; Civ. Code of Lo. art. 1754; Code Civ. 1101; Poth. Oblig. pt. i. c. 1, S. 1, Sec. 1; Blackstone, (2 Comm. 442,) defines it to be an agreement, upon a sufficient consideration, to do or not to do a particular thing. A contract has also been defined to be a compact between
two or more persons. 6 Cranch, R. 136.
     2. Contracts are divided into express or implied. An express contract is one where the terms of the agreement are openly uttered and avowed at the time of making, as to pay a stated price for certain goods. 2 Bl. Com. 443.
     3. Express contracts are of three sorts 1. BI parol, or in writing, as contradistinguished from specialties. 2. By specialty or under seal. 3. Of record.
     4.-1. A parol contract is defined to be a bargain or voluntary agreement made, either orally or in writing not under, seal, upon a good consideration, between two or more persons capable of contracting, to, do a lawful act, or to omit to do something, the performance whereof is not enjoined by law. 1 Com. Contr. 2 Chit. Contr. 2.
     5. From this definition it appears, that to constitute a sufficient parol agreement, there must be, 1st. The reciprocal or mutual assent of two or more persons competent to contract. Every agreement ought to be so certain and complete, that each party may have an action upon it; and the agreement would be incomplete if either party withheld his assent to any of its terms. Peake's R. 227; 3 T. R. 653; 1 B. & A. 681 1 Pick. R. 278. The agreement must, in general, be obligatory on both parties, or it binds neither. To this rule there are, however, some exceptions, as in the case of an infant's contract. He may always sue, though he cannot be sued, on his contract. Stra. 937. See other instances; 6 East, 307; 3 Taunt. 169; 5
Taunt. 788; 3 B. & C. 232.
     6.-2d. There must be a good and valid consideration, motive or inducement to make the promise, upon which a party is charged, for this is of the very essence of a contract under seal, and must exist, although the contract be reduced to writing. 7 T. R. 350, note (a); 2 Bl. Coin. 444. See this Dict. Consideration; Fonb. Tr. Eq. 335, n. (a) Chit. Bills. 68.
     7.-3d. There must be a thing to be done, which is not forbidden; or a thing to be omitted, the performance of which is not enjoined by law. A fraudulent or immoral contract, or one contrary to public policy is void Chit. Contr. 215, 217, 222: and it is also void if contrary to a statute. Id. 228 to 250; 1 Binn. 118; 4 Dall. 298 4 Yeates, 24, 84; 6 Binn. 321; 4 Serg & Rawle, 159; 4 Dall. 269; 1 Binn. 110 2 Browne's R. 48. As to contracts which are void for want of a compliance with the statutes of
frauds, see Frauds, Statute of.
     8.-2. The second kind of express contracts are specialties, or those which are made under seal, as deeds, bonds, and the like; they are not merely written, but delivered over by the party bound. The solemnity and deliberation with which, on account of the ceremonies to be observed, a deed or bond is presumed to be entered into, attach to it an importance and character which do not belong to a simple contract. In the case of a specially, no consideration is necessary to give it validity, even in a
court of equity. Plowd. 308; 7 T. R. 477; 4 B. & A. 652; 3 T. R. 438; 3 Bingh. 111, 112; 1 Fonb. Eq, 342, note When, a contract by specialty has been changed by a parol agreement, the whole of it becomes a parol contract.
2 Watts, 451; 9 Pick. 298; see 13 Wend. 71.
     9.-3. The highest kind of express contracts are those of record, such as judgments, recognizances of bail, and in England, statutes merchant and staple, and other securities of the same nature, cutered into with the intervention of some public authority. 2 Bl. Com. 465. See Authentic Facts.
    10. Implied contracts are such as reason and justice dictates, and which, therefore, the law presumes every man undertakes to perform; as if a man employs another to do any business for him, or perform any work, the law implies that the former contracted or undertook to pay the latter as much as his labor is worth; see Quantum merwit; or if one takes up goods from a
tradesman, without any agreement of price, the law concludes that he contracts to pay their value. 2 Bl. Com. 443. See Quantum valebant; Assumpsit. Com. Dig. Action upon the case upon assumpsit, A 1; Id. Agreement.
    11. By the laws of Louisiana, when considered as to the obligation of the parties, contracts are either unilateral or reciprocal. When the party to whom the engagement is made, makes no express agreement on his part, the contract is called unilateral, even in cases where the law attaches certain obligations to his acceptance. Civ. Code of Lo. art. 1758. A loan for use,
and a loan of money, are of this kind. Poth. Ob. P. 1, c. 1, s. 1, art. 2. A reciprocal contract is where the parties expressly enter into mutual engagements such as sale, hire, and the like. Id.
    12. Contracts, considered in relation to their substance, are either commutative or independent, principal or accessory.
    13. Commutative contracts, are those in which what is done, given or promised by one party, is considered as equivalent to, or in consideration of what is done, given or promised by the other. Civ. Code of Lo. art. 1761.
    14. Independent contracts are those in which the mutual acts or promises have no relation to each other, either as equivalents or as considerations. Id. art. 1762.
    15. A principal contract is one entered into by both parties, on their accounts, or in the several qualities they assume.
    16. An accessory contract is made for assuring the performance of a prior contract, either by the same parties or by others, such as suretyship, mortgage, and pledges. Id. art. 1764. Poth. Obl. p. 1, c. 1, s. 1, art. 2, n. 14.
    17. Contracts, considered in relation to the motive for. making them, are either gratuitous or onerous. To be gratuitous, the object of a contract must be to benefit the person with whom it is made, without any profit or advantage, received or promised, as a consideration for it. It is not, however, the less gratuitous, if it proceed either from gratitude for a benefit before received, or from the hope of receiving one hereafter, although such benefits be of a pecuniary nature. Id. art. 1766. Any thing given or promised, as a consideration for the engagement or gift; any service, interest, or condition, imposed on what is given or promised, although unequal to it in value, makes a contract onerous in its nature. Id. art. 1767.
    18. Considered in relation to their effects, contracts are either certain or hazardous. A contract is certain, when the thing to be done is supposed to depend on the will of the party, or when, in the usual course of events, it must happen in the manner stipulated. It is hazardous, when the performance.of that which is one of its objects, depends on an uncertain event. Id. art. 1769.
    19. Pothier, in his excellent treatise on Obligations, p. 1, c. 1, s. 1, art. 2, divides contracts under the five following heads:
    20.-1. Into reciprocal and unilateral.
    21.-2. Into consensual, or those which are formed by the mere consent of the parties, such as sale, hiring and mandate; and those in which it is necessary there should be something more than mere consent, such as loan of money, deposit or pledge, which from their nature require a delivery of the thing, (rei); whence they are called real contracts. See Real Contracts.
    22.-3. Into first, contracts of mutual interest, which are such as are entered into for the reciprocal interest and utility of each of the parties, as sales exchange, partnership, and the like.
    23.-2d. Contracts of beneficence, which are those by which only one of the contracting parties is benefited, as loans, deposit and mandate. 3d. Mixed contracts, which are those by which one of the parties confers a benefit on the other, receiving something of inferior value in return, such as a donation subject to a charge,
    24.-4. Into principal and accessory.
    25.-5. Into those which are subjected by the civil law to certain rules and forms, and those which ate regulated by mere natural justice. See, generally, as to contracts, Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t.; Chitty on Contracts; Comyn on Contracts; Newland on Contracts; Com. Dig. titles Abatement, E 12, F 8; Admiralty, E 10, 11; Action upon the Case upon Assumpsit; Agreement;
Bargain and Sale; Baron and Feme, Q; Condition; Dett, A 8, 9; Enfant, B 5; Idiot, D 1 Merchant, E 1; Pleader, 2 W, 11, 43; Trade D 3; War, B 2; Bac. Abr. tit. Agreement; Id. Assumpsit; Condition; Obligation; Vin. Abr. Condition; Contracts and Agreements; Covenants; Vendor, Vendee; Supp. to Ves. jr. vol. 2, p. 260, 295, 376, 441; Yelv. 47; 4 Ves. jr., 497, 671;
Archb. Civ. Pl. 22; Code Civ. L. 3, tit. 3 to 18; Pothier's Tr. of Obligations Sugden on Vendors and Purchasers; Story's excellent treatise on Bailments; Jones on Bailments; Toullier, Droit Civil Francais, tomes 6 et 7; Ham. Parties to Actions, Ch. 1; Chit. Pr. Index, h.t.; and the articles Agreement; Apportionment; Appropriation; Assent; Assignment; Assumpsit; Attestation; Bailment; Bargain and sale; Bidder; Bilateral contract; Bill of Exchange; Buyer; Commodate; Condition; Consensual contract; Conjunctive; Consummation; Construction; Contracto of benevolence; Covenant; Cumulative contracts; Debt; Deed; Delegation. Delivery; Discharge Of a contract; Disjunctive; Equity of a redemption; Exchange; Guaranty; Impairing the
obligation of contracts; Insurance; Interested contracts; Item; Misrepresentation; Mortgage; Mixed contract; Negociorum gestor; Novation; Obligation; Pactum constitutae, pecuniae; Partners; Partnership; Pledge; Promise; Purchaser; Quasi contract; Representation; Sale; Seller; Settlement; Simple contract; Synallagmatic contract; Subrogation; Title; Unilateral contract.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Contract :

A promissory agreement, between two or more persons that creates, modifies, or destroys a legal relation.
An agreement, upon sufficient consideration, to do or not to do a particular thing.

Parole
    A contract not entirely in writing.   (Black's 4th)

Controversy :

A dispute arising between two or more persons. It differs from case, which includes all suits criminal as well as civil; whereas
controversy is a civil and not a criminal proceeding. 2 Dall. R. 419, 431, 432; 1 Tuck. Bl. Com. App. 420, 421; Story, Const. Sec. 1668.
     2. By the constitution of the United States the judicial power shall extend to controversies to which the United States shall be a party. Art. 2,
1. The meaning to be attached to the word controversy in the constitution, is that above given.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Convict :

v. To condemn after judicial investigation; to find a man guilty of a criminal charge. The word was foremerly used also in the sense of finding against the defendant in a civil case.
    Formerly a man was said to be a convict when he had hbeen found guilty of treason or felony, but before judgement had been passed on him, after which  he was said to be attaint, (q.v.).

n. One who has been finally condemned by a court. One who has been adjudged guilty of a crime or misdemeanor. Usually spoken of condemned felons or the prisoners in penitentiaries.  (Black's 4th)

Conviction :

In a general sense, the result of a criminal trial which ends in a judgement or sentence that the prisoner is guilty as charged.
    The act of convicting a person, or state of being convicted, of a criminal offense.

A record of the summary proceedings upon any penal statute before one or more justices of the peace or other persons duly authorized, in a case where the offender has been convicted and sentenced. In respect of pardoning power, verdict of guilty.
    In ordinary phrase , the meaning of the word "conviction" is the findin gby the jury that the accused is guilty. But, in legal parlance, it often denotes the final judgement of the court.  (Black's 4th)

Coroner :

The name of an ancient officer of the common law, whose office and functions are continued in modern English and American administration. The coroner is an officer belonging to each county and is charged with duties both judicial and ministerial, but chiefly the former. It is his special province and duty to make inquiry into the causes and circumstances of any death happening within his territory which occurs through violence or suddenly and with marks of suspicion. This examination (called the "coroner's inquest") is held with a jury of proper persons upon view of the dead body. In England, another branch of his judicial office is to inquire concerning shipwrecks, and certify whether wreck or not, and who is in possession of the goods; and also to inquire concerning treasure trove, who were the finders, and where it is, and whether any one be suspected of having found and concealed a treasure. It belongs to the ministerial office of the coroner to serve writ and other process, and generally to discharge the duties of the sheriff, in case of the incapacity of that officer or a vacancy in his office. (Black's 4th)

Coroner :

An officer whose principal duty it is to hold an inquisition, with the assistance of a jury, over the body of any person who may have come to a violent death, or who has died in prison. It is his duty also, in case of the death of the sheriff, or when a vacancy happens in that office, to serve all the writs and process which the sheriff is usually bound to serve. The chief justice of the King's Bench is the sovereign or chief coroner of all England, although it is not to be understood that he performs the active
duties of that office in any one count. 4 Rep. 57, b. Vide Bac. Ab. h.t.; 6 Vin. Ab.242; 3 Com. Dig. 242; 5 Com. Dig. 212; and the articles Death; Inquisition.
     2. The duties of the coroner are of the greatest consequence to society, both for the purpose of bringing to punishment murderers and other offenders against the lives of the citizens, and of protecting innocent persons from criminal accusations. His office, it is to be regretted, is regarded with too much indifference. This officer should be properly acquainted with the medical and legal knowledge so absolutely indispensable in the faithful discharge of his office. It not unfrequently happens that the public mind is deeply impressed with the guilt of the accused, and when probably he is guilty, and yet the imperfections of the early examinations leave no alternative to the jury but to acquit. It is proper in most cases to procure the examination to be made by a physician, and in some cases, it is his duty. 4 Car. & P. 571.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Coroner's Inquest :

An inquisition or examination into the causes or circumstances of any death happening by violence or under suspicious conditions within his territory, held by the coroner with the assistance of a jury.  (Black's 4th)

Corporation :

An artificial person or legal entity created by or under the authority of laws of a state. An association of persons created by statute as a legal entity. The law treats the corporation itself as a person that can sue and be sued. The corporation is distinct from the individauls who comprise it (shareholders). The corporation survives the death of it's investors, as the shares can usually be transferred.  (Black's 6th)

Count :

v. In pleading. To declare; to recite; to state a case; to narrate the facts constituting a plaintiff's cause of action. In a special sense, to set out the claim or count of the demandant in a real action.
To plead orally; to plead or argue a case in court; to recite or read in court; to recite a count in court.

n. In pleading. The plaintiff's statement of his cause of action. The different parts of a declaration, each of which, if it stood alone, would constitute a ground for action. Used also to signify the several parts of an indictment, each charging a distict offense.
    "Count" and "charge" when used relative to allegations in an indictment or information are synonymous. (Black's 4th)

Count :

pleading. This word, derived from the French conte, a narrative, is in our old law books used synonymously with declaration but practice has introduced the following distinction: when the plaintiff's complaint embraces only a single cause of action, and he makes only one statement of it, that statement is called, indifferently, a declaration or count; though the former is the more usual term.
    2. But when the suit embraces two or more causes of action, (each of which of course requires a different statement;) or when the plaintiff makes two or more different statements of one and the same cause of action, each several statement is called a count, and all of them, collectively, constitute the declaration.
    3. In all cases, however, in which there are two or more counts, whether there is actually but one cause of action or several, each count purports, upon the face of it, to disclose a distinct right of action, unconnected with that stated in any of the other counts.
    4. One object proposed, in inserting two or more counts in one declaration, when there is in fact but one cause of action, is, in some cases, to guard against the danger of an insufficient statement of the cause, where a doubt exists as to the legal sufficiency of one or another of two different modes of declaring; but the more usual end proposed in inserting more than one count in such case, is to accommodate the statement to the cause, as far as may be, to the possible state of the proof to be
exhibited on trial; or to guard, if possible, against the hazard of the proofs varying materially from the statement of the cause of action; so that if one or more or several counts be not adapted to the evidence, some other of them may be so. Gould on Pl. c. 4, s. 2, 3, 4; Steph. Pl. 279; Doct. Pl. 1 78; 8 Com. Dig. 291; Dane's Ab. Index, h.t.; Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t. In real actions, the declaration is most usually called a count. Steph. Pl. 36, See Common count; Money count.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Counterclaim :

A claim presented by a defendant in opposition to or deduction from the claim of the plaintiff. Fed R. Civil P. 13. If established, such will defeat or diminish the plaintiff's claim. Under federal rule practice, and also in most states, counterclaims are either compulsory (required to be made) or permissive (made at option of defendant).  (Black's 6th)

Court :

A space which is uncovered, but which may be partly or wholly inclosed by buildings or walls.  (Black's 4th)

Court of Common Pleas :

The name of an English court which was established on the breaking up of the aula regis, for the determination of pleas merely
civil. It was at first ambulatory, but was afterwards located. This jurisdiction is founded on original write issuing out of chancery, in the cases of common persons. But when an attorney or person belonging to the court, is plaintiff, he sues by writs, of privilege, and is sued by bill, which is in the nature of a petition; both which originate in the common
pleas. See Bench; Banc.
     2. There are courts in most of the states of the United States which bear the name of common pleas; they have various powers and jurisdictions.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Credit :

The ability of a business man to borrow money, or obtain goods on time, in consequence of the favorable opinion held by the community, or by the particular lender, as to his solvency and reliability. That influence connected with certain social positions. Time allowed to the buyer of goods by the seller, in which to make paymeny for them. The correlative of a debt; that is, a debt considered from the creditor's standpoint, or that which is incoming or due to one. That which is due to a person, as distinguished from debit, that which is due by him. Claim or cause of action for specific sum of money.
    A sum credited on the books of a company to person who appears to be entitled to it.  (Black's 4th)

common law, contracts. The ability to borrow, on the opinion conceived by the lender that he will be repaid. This definition includes the effect and the immediate cause of credit. The debt due in consequence of such a contract is also called a credit; as, administrator of an the goods, chattels, effects and credits, &c.
     2. The time extended for the payment of goods sold, is also called a credit; as, the goods were sold at six months credit.
     3. In commercial law, credit is understood as opposed to debit; credit is what is due to a merchant, debit, what is due by him
     4. According to M. Duvergier, credit also signifies that influence acquired by intrigue connected with certain social positions. 20 Toull. n.
19. This last species of credit is not, of such value as to be the object of commerce. Vide generally, 5 Taunt. R. 338.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

That which is extended to a buyer or borrower on the seller's or lender's belief that that which is given will be repaid. The term can be applied to unlimited types of transactions. Under the UCC, any credit transaction creating a security interest in property is called a "secured transaction".  (Barron's 3rd)

Creditor :

A person to whom a debt is owing by another person who is the "debtor." One who has a right to require the fulfillment of a obligation or contract; one to whom money is due, and, in ordinary acceptation, has reference to financial or business transactions.  (Black's 4th)

Credits :

A term of universal application to obligations due and to become due.
A term used in taxation statutes to designate certain forms of personal property. It includes every claim and demand for money and every sum of money receivable at stated periods, due or to become due, but not unaccrued rents to issue out of land.  (Black's 4th)

Crime :

A positive or negative act in violation of penal law; an offense against the state.  "Crime" and "misdemeanor", properly speaking, are synonymous terms; though in common usage "crime" is made to denote such offenses as are of a more atrocious dye. An act committed or omitted in violation of a public law.  (Black's 4th)

Criminal :

n. One who has committed a criminal offense; one who has been legally convicted of a crime; one adjudged guilty of crime.  (Black's 4th)

Currency :

Coined money and such banknotes or other paper money as are authorized by law and do in fact circulate from hand to hand as the medium of exchange.
    The term "money" is synonomous with "currency" and imports any currency, token, bank notes, or other circulating medium in general use as the representative of value.  (Black's 4th)

Currency :

The money which passes, at a fixed value, from hand to hand; money which is authorized by law.
     2. By art. 1, s. 8, the Constitution of the United States authorizes congress "to coin money, and to regulate the value thereof." Changes in the currency ought not to be made but for the most urgent reason, as they unsettle commerce, both at home and abroad. Suppose Peter contracts to pay Paul one thousand dollars in six months-the dollar of a certain fineness of silver, weighing one hundred and twelve and a half grains-and afterwards, before the money becomes due, the value of the dollar is changed, and it weighs now but fifty-six and a quarter grains; will one thousand of the new dollars pay the old debt? Different opinion may be entertained, but it seems that such payment would be complete; because, 1. The creditor is bound to receive the public currency; and, 2. He is bound to receive it at its legal value. 6 Duverg. n. 174.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Debit :

A sum charged as due or owing. The term is used in book-keeping to denote the left page of the ledger, or the charging of a person or an account with all that is supplied to or paid out for him or for the subject of the account. . Also, the balance of an account where it is shown that something remains due to the party keeping the account.  (Black's 4th)

Debt :

A sum of money due by certain and express agreement; as by bond for a determinate sum, a bill or note, a special bargain, or a rent reserved on a lease, where the amount is fixed and specific, and does not depend upon any subsequent valuation to settle it.
Synonyms:
    The term "demand" is of much broader import than "debt," and embraces rights of action belongin g to the  debtor beyond those which could appropriately be called "debts". In this respect the term "demand" is one of very extensive import.
    Nevertheless, "debt" may be synonymous with "claim"; and may include any kind of a just demand.
    The word dues is equivalent to "debts," or that which is owing and has a contractual significance.
    "Debt" is not exactly synonymous with "duty." A debt is a legal liability to pay a specific sum of money; a duty is a legal obligation to perform some act.
    "Obligation" is a broader term than "debt". Every obligation is not a debt, though every debt is an obligation.
    The words "debt" and "liability" are not necessarily synonymous. As applied to the pecuniary relations  or parties, liability is a term of broader significance than debt. Liability is responsibility; the state of one who is bound in law and justice to do something which may be enforced by action. This liability may arise from contracts either express or implied, or in consequence of torts committed. "Liability" ordinarily means an obligation which may or may not ripen into a debt. Yet "debt" may sometimes include various kinds of liabilities.  (Black's 4th)

Debt :

contracts. A sum of money due by certain and express agreement. 3 Bl. Com. 154. In a less technical sense, as in the "act to regulate arbitrations and proceedings in courts of justice" of Pennsylvania, passed the 21st of March, 1806, s. 5, it means an claim for money. In a still more enlarged sense, it denotes any kind of a just demand; as, the debts of a bankrupt. 4 S. & R. 506.
     2. Debts arise or are proved by matter of record, as judgment debts; by bonds or specialties; and by simple contracts, where the quantity is fixed and specific, and does not depend upon any future valuation to settle it. 3 Bl. Com. 154; 2 Hill. R. 220.
     3. According to the civilians, debts are divided into active and passive. By the former is meant what is due to us, by the latter, what we owe. By liquid debt, they understand one, the payment of which may be immediately enforced, and not one which is due at a future time, or is subject to a condition; by hypothecary debt is meant, one which is a lien over an estate and a doubtful debt, is one the payment of which is uncertain. Clef des Lois Rom. h.t.
     4. Debts are discharged in various ways, but principally by payment. See Accord and Satisfaction; Bankruptcy; Confusion Compensation; Delegation; Defeasance; Discharge of a contract; Extinction; Extinguishment; Former recovery; Lapse of time; Novation; Payment; Release; Rescission; Set off.
     5. In payment of debts, some are to be paid before others, in cases of insolvent estates first, in consequence of the character of the creditor, as debts due to the United States are generally to be first paid; and secondly, in consequence of the nature of the debt, as funeral expenses and servants' wages, which are generally paid in preference to other debts. See Preference; Privilege; Priority.   (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Debtor :

"Debtor" means the person who owes payment or other performance of the obligation secured, whether or not he or she owns or has rights in the collateral, and includes the seller of accounts or chattel paper.  UCC 9-105(d)

Debtor :

One who owes a debt; he who may be compelled to pay a claim or demand. Anyone liable on a claim, whether due or to become due.
    The term may be used synonymously with "obligor," mortgagor," and the like.  (Black's 4th)

Debtor :

contracts. One who owes a debt; he who may be constrained to pay what he owes.
     2. A debtor is bound to pay his debt personally, and all the estate he possesses or may acquire, is also liable for his debt.
     3. Debtors are joint or several; joint, when they all equally owe the debt in solido; in this case if a suit should be necessary to recover the debt, all the debtors must be sued together or, when some are dead, the survivors must be sued, but each is bound for the whole debt, having a right to contribution from the others; they are several, when each promises severally to pay the whole debt; and obligations are generally binding on both or all debtors jointly and severally. When they are severally bound
each may be sued separately, and on the payment of debt by one, the others will be bound to contribution, where all had participated in the money or property, which was the cause of the debt.
     4. Debtors are also principal and surety; the principal debtor is bound as between him and his surety to pay the whole debt. and if the surety pay it, he will be entitled to recover against the principal. Vide Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t.; Vin. Ab. Creditor and Debtor; Id. Debt; 8 Com. Dig. 288; Dig. 50, 16, 108 Id. 50, 16, 178, 3; Toull. liv. 2, n. 250.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Decision :

A judgement or decree pronounced by a court in settlement of a controversy submitted to it and by way of authoritative answer to the questions raised before it.
A judgement given by a competent tribunal.
The findings of fact and conclusions of law which must be in writing and filed with the clerk.  (Black's 4th)

Declaration :

In Pleading. The first of the pleadings on the part of the plaintiff in an action at law, being a formal and methodical specification of the facts and circumstances constitutiong his cause of action. It commonly comprises several sections or divisions, called "counts," and it's formal parts follow each other in this order " Title, venue, commencement, cause of action, counts, conclusion. The declaration, at common law, answers to the "libel" in ecclesiastical and admiralty law, the "bill" in equity, the "petition" in civil law, the "complaint" in code pleading, and the "count" in real actions.
    It may be general or special : for example, in debt on a bond, a declaration counting on the penal part only in general; one which sets out both the bond and the condition and assigns the breach is special.   (Black's 4th)

Declaration :

pleading. A declaration is a specification, in a methodical and logical form, of the circumstances which constitute the plaintiff's cause of action. 1 Chit. Pl. 248; Co. Litt. 17, a, 303, a; Bac. Abr. Pleas, B; Com. Dig. Pleader, C 7; Lawes on Pl. 35; Steph Pl. 36; 6 Serg. & Rawle, 28. In real actions, it is most properly called the count; in a personal one, the declaration. Steph. Pl. 36 Doct. Pl. 83; Lawes, Plead. 33; see P. N. B. 16, a, 60, d. The latter, however, is now the general term; being that commonly used when referring to real and personal actions without distinction. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 2815.
     2. The declaration in an action at law answers to the bill in chancery, the libel of the civilians, and the allegation of the ecclesiastical courts.
     3. It may be considered with reference, 1st. To those general requisites or qualities which govern the whole declaration; and 2d. To its form, particular parts, and requisites.
     4.-1. The general requisites or qualities of a declaration are first, that it correspond with the process. But, according to the present practice of the courts, oyer of the writ cannot be craved; and a variance between the writ and declaration cannot be pleaded in abatement. 1 Saund. 318; a.
     5.  Secondly. The second general requisite of a declaration is, that it contain a statement of all the facts necessary in point of law, to sustain the action, and no more. Co. Litt. 303, a; Plowd. 84, 122. See 2 Mass. 863; Cowp. 682; 6 East, R. 422 5 T. R. 623; Vin. Ab. Declarations.
     6.  Thirdly. These circumstances must be stated with certainty and truth. The certainty necessary in a declaration is, to a certain intent in general, which should pervade the whole declaration, and is particularly required in setting forth, 1st. The parties; it must be stated with certainty who are the parties to the suit, and therefore a declaration by or against "C D and Company," not being a corporation, is insufficient. See Com. Dig. Pleader, C I 8 1 Camp. R. 446 I T. R. 508; 3 Caines, R. 170. 2d. The time; in personal actions the declaration must, in general, state a time when every material or traversable fact happened; and when a venue is necessary, time must also, be mentioned. 5 T. R. 620; Com. Dig. Plead. C 19; Plowd. 24; 14 East, R. 390.; The precise time, however, is not material; 2 Dall. 346; 3 Johns. R. 43; 13 Johns. R. 253; unless it constitutes a
material part of the contract declared upon, or where the date, &c., of a written contract or record, is averred; 4 T. R. 590 10 Mod. 313 2 Camp. R. 307, 8, n.; or, in ejectment, in which the demise must be stated to have been made after the title of the lessor of the plaintiff, and his right of entry, accrued. 2 East, R. 257; 1 Johns. Cas. 283. 3d. The Place. See Venue.
4th. Other circumstances necessary to maintain the action.
     7.-2. The parts and particular requisites of a declaration are, first, the title of the court and term. See 1 Chit. Pl. 261, et seq.
     8.  Secondly. The venue. Immediately after the title of the declaration follows the statement in the margin of the venue, or county in which the facts are alleged to have occurred, and in which the cause is tried. See Venue.
     9.  Thirdly. The commencement. What is termed the commencement of the declaration follows the venue in the margin, and precedes the more circumstantial statement of the cause of action. It contains a statement, 1st. Of the names of the parties to the suit, and if they sue or be sued in another right, or in a political capacity, (as executors, assignees, qui lam, &c.) of the character or right in respect of which they are parties to the suit. 2d. Of the mode in  which the defendant has been brought into court; and, 3d. A brief recital of the form of action to be proceeded in. 1 Saund. 318, Id. 111, 112; 6 T. R. 130.
    10.  Fourthly. The statement of the cause (if action, in which all the requisites of certainty before mentioned must be observed, necessarily varies, according to the circumstances of each particular case, and the form of action, whether in assumpsit, debt, covenant, detinue, case, trover, replevin or trespass.
    11.  Fifthly. The several counts. A declaration may consist of as many counts as the case requires, and the jury may assess entire or distinct damages on. all the counts; 3 Wils. R. 185; 2 Bay, R. 206; and it is usual, particularly in actions of assumpsit, debt on simple contract, and actions on the case, to set forth the plaintiff's cause of action in various shapes in different counts, so that if the plaintiff fail in proof of one count, he may succeed in another. 3 Bl. Com. 295.
    12.  Sixthly. The conclusion. In personal and mixed actions the declaration should conclude to the damage of the plaintiff; Com. Dig. Pleader, C 84; 10 Co. 116, b. 117, a.; unless in scire facias and in penal actions at the suit of a common informer.
    13.  Seventhly. The profert and pledges. In an action at the suit of an executor or administrator, immediately after the conclusion to the damages, &c., and before the pledges, a profert of the letters testamentary or letters of administration should be made. Bac. Abr. Executor, C; Dougl. 6, in notes. At the end of the declaration, it is usual to add the plaintiff is common pledges to prosecute, John Doe and Richard Roe.
    14. A declaration may be general or special; for example, in debt or bond, a declaration counting on the penal part only, is general; when it sets out both the penalty and the condition, and assigns the breach, it is special. Gould on Pl. c. 4, Sec. 50. See, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t. 1 Chit. Pl. 248 to 402; Lawes, Pl. Index) h.t.; Arch. Civ. Pl. index, h.t.; Steph. Pl. h.t.; Grab. Pr. h.t.; Com. Dig. Pleader, h.t.; Dane's Ab. h.t.; United States Dig. Pleadings ii.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Deduction :

That which is deducted; the part taken away; abatement; as a deduction from the yearly rent.

In Probate Law
    By "deduction" is understood a portion or thing which an heir has a right to take from the mass of the succession before any partition takes place.

Taxation
    As used in Internal Revenue Code, relating to tax on corporation, "deduction" refers to items which may be subtracted from a corporation's gross income in arriving at net income.  (Black's 4th)

Default :

The neglect to perform a legal obligation or duty; but in technical language by default is often understood the non-appearance of the defendant within the time prescribed by law, to defend himself; it also signifies the non-appearance of the plaintiff to prosecute his claim.
     2. When the plaintiff makes default, he may be nonsuited; and when the defendant makes default, judgment by default is rendered against him. Com. Dig. Pleader, E 42 Id. B 11. Vide article Judgment by Default, and 7 Vin. Ab. 429; Doct. Pl. 208 Grah. Pr. 631. See, as to what will excuse or save a default, Co. Litt. 259 b.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Defend :

To prohibit or forbid. To deny. To contest and endeavor to defeat a claim or demand made against one in a court of justice.

Defendant :

The person defending or denying; the party against whom relief or recovery is sought in an action or suit.
    In common usage, this term is applied to the party put upon his defense or summoned to answer a charge or complaint, in any species of action, civil or criminal, at law or in equity. Strictly, however, it does not apply to the person against whom a real action is brought for in that proceeding the technical usage is to call the parties respectively the "demandant" and the "tenant".  (Black's 4th)

Delivery :

With respect to instruments, documents of title, chattel paper or certified securities means voluntary transfer of possession.  UCC 1-201(14)

A voluntary transfer of title or possession from one party to another; a legally recognized handing-over of one's possessory rights to another. Where actual delivery would be cumbersome or impossible, the courts will find a constructive delivery sufficient, provided the intention is clearly to transfer title.  (Barron's 3rd)

Demand :

contracts. A claim; a legal obligation.
     2. Lord Coke says, that demand is a word of art, and of an extent, in its signification, greater than any other word except claim. Litt. sect. 508; Co. Litt. 291; 2 Hill, R. 220; 9 S. & R. 124; 6 Watts and S. 226. Hence a release of all demands is, in general, a release of all covenants, real and personal, conditions, whether broken or not, annuities, recognizances,
obligations, contracts, and the like. 3 Tho. Co. Litt. 427; 3 Penna, 120; 2 Hill, R. 228.
     3. But a release of all demands does not discharge rent before it is due, if it be a rent incident to the reversion; for the rent was not only not due, but the consideration - the future enjoyment of the lands - for which the rent was to be given, was not executed. 1 Sid. 141; 1 Lev. 99 3 Lev. 274; Bac. Ab. Release, I.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Deny :

To traverse. To refuse to grant a petition or protest.  (Black's 4th)

Digest :

civil law. The name sometimes given to the Pandects of Justinian; it is so called because this compilation is reduced to order, quasi digestiae.
    2. It is an abridgment of the decisions of the praetors and the works of the learned, and ancient writers on the law. It was made by order of the emperor Justinian, who, in 530, published an ordinance entitled De Conceptione Digestorum, which was addressed to Tribonian, and by which he was required to select some of the most distinguished lawyers to assist him in composing a collection of the best decisions of the ancient lawyers, and compile them is fifty books, without confusion or contradiction. The work was immediately commenced, and completed on the 16th of December, 533.
     3. The Digest is divided in two different ways; the first, into fifty books, each book into several titles, and each title into several laws at the head of each of them is the name of the lawyer from. whose work it was taken.
     4.-1. The first book contains twenty-two titles; the subject of the first is De justicia et jure; of the division of person and things; of magistrates, &c.
     5.-2. The second, divided into fifteen titles, treats of the power of magistrates and their jurisdiction; the manner of commencing suits; of agreements and compromises.
     6.-3. The third, composed of six titles, treats of those who can and those who cannot sue; of advocates and attorneys and syndics; and of calumny.
     7.-4. The fourth, divided into nine titles, treats of causes of restitution of submissions and arbitrations; of minors, carriers by water, innkeepers and those who have the care of the property of others.
     8.-5. In the fifth there are six titles, which. treat of jurisdiction and inofficious testaments.
     9.-6. The subject, of the sixth, in which there are three titles, is actions.
    10.-7. The seventh, in nine titles, embraces whatever concerns usufructs, personal servitudes, habitations, the uses of real estate, and its appurtenances, and of the sureties required of the usufructuary.
    11.-8. The eighth book, in six titles, regulates urban and rural servitudes.
    12.-9. The ninth book, in four titles, explains certain personal actions.
    13.-10. The tenth, in four titles, treats of mixed actions.
    14.-11. The object of the eleventh book, containing eight titles, is to regulate interrogatories, the cases of which the judge was to take cognizance, fugitive slaves, of gamblers, of surveyors who made false reports, and of funerals and funeral expenses.
    15.-12. The twelfth book, in seven titles, regulates personal actions in which the plaintiff claims the title of a thing.
    16.-13. The thirteenth, treats of certain particular actions, in seven titles.
    17.-14. This, like the last, regulates certain actions: it has six titles.
    18.-15. The fifteenth, in four titles, treats of actions for which a father or master is liable, in consequence of the acts of his children or slaves, and those to which he is entitled; of the peculium of children and slaves, and of the actions on this right.
    19.-16. The sixteenth, in three titles, contains the law. relating to the senatus consultum velleianum, of compensation or set off, and of the action of deposit.
    20.-17. The seventeenth, in two titles, expounds the law of mandates and partnership.
    21.-18. The eighteenth book, in seven titles, explains the contract of sale.
    22.-19. The nineteenth, in five titles, treats of the actions which arise on a contract of sale.
    23.-20. The law relating to pawns, hypothecation, the preference among creditors, and subrogation, occupy the twentieth book, which contains six titles.
    24.-21. The twenty-first book, explains under three titles, the edict of the ediles relating to the sale of slaves and animals; then what relates to evictions and warranties.
    25.-22. The twenty-second treats of interest, profits and accessories of things, proofs, presumptions, and of ignorance of law and fact. It is divided into six titles.
    26.-23. The twenty-third, in five titles, contains the law of marriage, and its accompanying agreements.
    27.-24. The twenty-fourth, in three titles, regulates donations between husband and wife, divorces, and their consequence.
    28.-25. The twenty-fifth is a continuation of the subject of the preceding. It contains seven titles.
    29.-26 and 27. These two books, each in two titles, contain the law relating to tutorship and curatorship.
    30.-28. The twenty-eighth, in eight titles, contain's the law on last wills and testaments.
    31.-29. The twenty-ninth, in seven titles, is the continuation of the twenty-eighth book.
    32.-30, 31, and 32. These three books, each divided into two titles, contain the law of trusts and specific legacies.
    33.-33, 34, and 35. The first of these, divided into ten titles; the second, into nine titles; and the last into three titles, treat of various kinds of legacies.
    34.-36. The thirty-sixth, containing four titles, explains the senatus consultum trebellianum, and the time when trusts become due.
    35.-37. This book, containing fifteen titles, has two objects first, to regulate successions; and, secondly, the respect which children owe their parents, and freedmen their patrons.
    36.-38. The thirty-eighth book, in seventeen titles, treats of a variety of subjects; of successions, and of the degree of kindred in successions; of possession; and of heirs.
    37.-39. The thirty-ninth explains the means which the law and the praetor take to prevent a threatened injury; and donations inter vivos and mortis causa.
    38.-40. The fortieth, in sixteen titles, treats of the state and condition of persons, and of what relates to freedmen and liberty.
    39.-41. The different means of acquiring and losing title to property, are explained in the forty-first book, in ten titles.
    40.-42.  The forty-second, in eight titles, treats of the res judicata, and of the seizure and sale of the property of a debtor.
    41.-43. Interdicts or possessory actions are the object of the forty-third book, in three titles.
    42.-44. The forty-fourth contains an enumeration of defences which arise in consequence of the res judicata, from the lapse of time, prescription, and the like. This occupies six titles; the seventh treats of obligations and actions.
    43.-45. This speaks of stipulations, by freedmen, or by slaves. It contains only three titles.
    44.-46. This book, in eight titles, treats of securities, novations, and delegations, payments, releases, and acceptilations.
    45.-47. In the forty-seventh book are explained the punishments inflicted for private crimes, de privates delictis, among which are included larcenies, slander, libels, offences against religion, and public manners, removing boundaries, and other similar offences.
    46.-48. This book treats of public crimes, among which are enumerated those Iaesae majestatis, adultery, murder, poisoning, parricide, extortion, and the like, with rules for procedure in such cases.
    47.-49. The forty-ninth, in eighteen titles, treats of appeals, of the rights of the public treasury, of those who are in captivity, and of their repurchase.
    48.-50. The last book, in seventeen titles, explains the rights of municipalities. and then treats of a variety of public officers.
    49. Besides this division, Justinian made another, in which the fifty books were divided into seven parts: The first contains the first four books; the second, from the fifth to the eleventh book inclusive; the third, from the twelfth to the nineteenth inclusive; the fourth, from title twentieth to the twenty-seventh inclusive; the fifth, from the twenty-eighth to the thirty-sixth inclusive the sixth, commenced with the thirty seventh, and ended with the forty-fourth book; and the seventh or last was composed
of the last six books.
    50. A third division, which, however, is said not to have been made by Justinian, is in three parts. The first, called digestum vetus, because it was the first printed. It commences with the first book, and. includes the work to the end of the second title of the twenty-fourth book. The second, called digestum infortiatum, because it is supported or fortified by the other two, it being the middle; it commences with the beginning of the third title of the twenty-fourth book and ends with the thirty-eighth. The third, which begins with the thirty-ninth book and ends with the work, is called digestum novum, because it was last printed.
    51. The Digest, although, compiled in Constantinople, was originally written in Latin, and afterwards translated into Greek.
    52. This work was lost to all Europe during a considerable period, as indeed all the law works of Justinian were, except some fragments of the Code and Novels. During the pillage of Amalphi, in the war between the two soi-disant popes Innocent II. and Anaclet II., a soldier discovered an old manuscript, which attracted his attention by its envelope of many colors. It was carried to the emperor, Clothaire II., and proved to be the Pandects of Justinian. The work was arranged in its present order by Warner, a German, whose name, Latinised, is Irnerius, who was appointed professor of Roman law at Bologna, by that emperor. 1 Fournel, Hist. des Avocats, 44, 46, 51.
    53. The Pandects contain all whatsoever Justinian drew out of 150,000 verses of the old books of the Roman law. The style of the Digest is very grave and pure, and differs not much from the eloquentist speech that ever the Romans used." The learning of the digest stands rather in the discussing of subtle questions of law, and enumerations of the variety of opinions of ancient lawyers thereupon, than in practical matters of daily use. The Code of Justinian differs in these respects from, the Digest. It is less methodical, but more practical; the style however, is a barbarous Thracian phrase Latinised, such as never any mean Latinist spoke. The work is otherwise rude and unskillful. Ridley's View of the Civ. & Ecc. Law, pt. 1, ch. 2, Sec. 1, and ch. 1, Sec. 2.
    54. Different opinions are entertained upon the merits of the Digest, or Pandects, Code, Authentics and Feuds, as a system of jurisprudence. By some it has been severely criticised, and even harshly censured, and by others as warmly defended the one party discovering nothing but defects, and the other as obstinately determined to find nothing but what is good and valuable. See Felangieri della Legislazione, vol. 1, c. 7. It must be confessed that it is not without defects. It might have been comprehended in less extent, and in some parts arranged in better order. It must be confessed also that it is less congenial as a whole, with the principles of free government, than the common law of England. Yet, with all these defects, it is a rich fountain of learning and reason; and of this monument of the high culture and wisdom of the Roman jurists it may be said, as of all other works in which the good so much surpasses the bad.
               Ut plura intent in carmine non ego paucis
               Offendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit
               Aut humana parum cavit natura.
                          HORAT. ART. POETIC, v. 351.

Discharge :

The opposite of charge; hence to release; liberate; annul; unburden; disincumber. In the law of cantracts. To cancel or unloose the obligation of a contract; to make an agreement or contract null and inoperative. Discharge is a generic term; it's principal species are rescission, release, accord and satisfaction, performance, judgement, composition, bankruptcy, merger.  (Black's 1st)

practice. The act by which a person in confinement, under some legal process, or held on an accusation of some crime or misdemeanor, is set at liberty; the writing containing the order for his being so set at liberty, is also called a discharge.
     2. The discharge of a defendant, in prison under a ca. sa., when made by the plaintiff, has the operation of satisfying the debt, the plaintiff having no other remedy. 4 T. R. 526. But when the discharge is in consequence of the insolvent laws, or the defendant dies in prison, the debt is not satisfied. In the first place the plaintiff has a remedy against the property of the defendant, acquired after his discharge, and, in the last case, against the executors or administrators of the debtor. Bac. Ab.
Execution, D; Bingh. on Execution, 266.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Discount :

In a general sense, any allowance or deduction made from a gross sum on any account whatever. In a more limited and technical sense, the taking of interest in advance.
    By the language of the commercial world and the settled practice of banks, a discount by bank means a drawback or deduction made upon it's advances or loans of money, upon negotiable paper or other evidences of debt payable at a future day, which are transferred to the bank.
    Although the discounting of notes or bills, in it's most comprehensive sense, may mean lending money and taking notes in payment, yet, in it's more ordinary sense, the discounting of notes or bill means advancing a consideration for a bill or note, deducting or discounting the interest which will accrue for the time the note has to run.
    Discounting by a bank means means lending money upon a note, and deducting the interest or premium in advance.
    Discount, as we have seen, is the difference between the price and the amount of the debt, the evidence of which is transferred. That difference represents interest charged, being at the same rate, according to which the price paid, if invested until the maturity of the debt, will just produce its amount.  (Black's 4th)

Dishonor :

A term applied to the non-fulfillment of commercial engagements. To dishonor a bill of exchange or promissory note, is to refuse or neglect to pay it at maturity.  Bouveir's 3rd    In mercantile law and usage.  To refuse or decline to accept a bill of exchange, or to refuse or neglect to pay a bill  or note at maturity. A negotiable instrument is dishonored when it is either not paid or not accepted, according to it's tenor, on presentment for that purpose, or without presentment, where that is excused. Civil Code Cal. Section 3141  / (Black's 1st)

Dock :

The cage or inclosed space in a criminal court where prisoners stand when brought in for trial.
    The space in a river or harbor, inclosed between two wharves.
    A slip or waterway extending between two piers or projecting wharves for the reception of, ships, sometimes including the piers themselves.
    "A dock is an artificial basin in connection with a harbor, used for the reception of vessels in the taking on or the discharging of their cargoes, and provided with gates for preventing the rise and fall of the waters occasioned by the tides, and keeping a uniform level within the docks."  (Black's 4th)

Docket :

v.  To abstract and enter in a book. To make a brief entry of any proceeding in a court of justice in the docket.

n.  A minute, abstract, or brief entry;or the book containing such entries. A small piece of paper or parchment having the effect of a larger.

In practice.
    A formal record, entered in brief, of the proceedings in a court of justice.
    A book containing an entry in brief of all the important acts done in court in the conduct of each case, from it's inception to it's conclusion.
    The mane of "docket" or "trial docket" is sometimes given to the list or calender of causes set to be tried at a specified term, prepared by the clerls for the use of the court and bar.  (Black's 4th)

Docket, striking a, :

A phrase formerly used in English bankruptcy practice. It referred to the entry of certain papers at the bankruptcy office, preliminary to the prosecution of the fiat against a trader who had become bankrupt. These papers consisted of the affidavit, the bond, and the petition of the creditor, and their abject was to obtain from the lord chancellor his fiat, authorizing the petitioner to prosecute his complaint against the bankrupt in the bankruptcy courts.  (Black's 4th)

Document of Title :

"Document of Title" includes bill of lading, dock warrant, dock receipt, warehouse receit, or order for delivery of goods. Evidencing that the person entitled under the document has the right to receive, hold and dispose of the document and the goods it covers.  UCC 1-201(15)

Dollar :

The unit employed in the United States in calculating money values. It is of the value of one hundred cents. Money or currency issued by lawful authority and intended to pass and circulate as such.  (Black's 4th)

Dollar, money :

A silver coin of the United States of the value of one hundred cents, or tenth part of an eagle.
     2. It weighs four hundred and twelve and a half grains. Of one thousand parts, nine hundred are of pure silver and one hundred of alloy. Act of January 18, 1837, ss. 8 & 9, 4 Sharsw. Cont. of Story's L. U. S. 2523, 4;
Wright, R. 162.
     3. In all computations at the custom-house, the specie dollar of Sweden and Norway shall be estimated at one hundred and six cents. The specie dollar of Denmark,  at one hundred and five cents. Act of May 22, 1846.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Double Entry :

A system of mercantile bookkeeping, in which the entries in the day-book, etc., are posted twice into the ledger. First, to a personal account, that is, to the account of the person with whom the dealing to which any given entry refers has taken place; secondly, to an impersonal account, as "goods."  (Black's 1st)

A system of bookkeeping, in which the entries are posted twice into the ledger, once as a credit and once as a debit.   (Black's 6th)

Double Entry :

A term used among merchants to signify that books of account are kept in such a manner that they present the debit and credit of every thing. The term is used in contradistinction to single entry.
     2. Keeping books by double entry is more exact, because, presenting all the active and all the passive property of the merchant, in their respective divisions, there cannot be placed an article to, an account, which does not pass to some correspondent account elsewhere. It presents a perfect, view of each operation, and, from the relation and comparison of the divers accounts, which always keep pace with each other, their correctness is proved; for every commercial operation is necessarily composed of two interests, which are connected together. The basis of this mode of keeping books, and the only condition required, is to write down every transaction and nothing else; and to make no entry without putting it down to the two agents of the operation. By this means a merchant whose transactions are extensive, comprising a great number of subjects, is able to known not only the general situation of his affairs, but also the situation of each particular operation. For example, when a merchant receives money, his cash account becomes debtor, and the person who has paid it, or the merchandise sold, is credited with it; when he pays money, the cash account, is credited, And the merchandise bought, or the obligation paid, is debited with it. See Single entry.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Draft :

An order in writing directing a person other than the maker to pay a specified sum to a named person. Drafts may or may not be negotiable instruments, depending on where the elements of negotiability are satisfied. Draft is synonymous with bill of exchange.  (Barron's 3rd)

"Draft" means a draft as defined in Section 3-104 or an item, other than an instrument, that is an order.  UCC 4-104(7). An instrument is a "note" if it is a promise, and is a "draft" if it is an order.  UCC 3-104(e)

The common term for a bill of exchange; as being drawn by on eperson on another.

An order for the payment of money drawn by one person on another. It is said to be a nomen generalissimum and to include all such orders.
    The term includes a cashier's check; but a draft is distinguishable from a cashier's check in that a draft is a bill of exchange payable on demand purporting to be drawn on deposit while a cashier's check is a primary obligation of a bank which issues it and constitutes it's written promise to pay it on demand. It is distinguished from "check" by the fact that in a draft the drawer is a bank, while in the ordinary check, the drawer is an individual.  (Black's 4th)

Drawee :

One to whom a bill of exchange or a check directs a request to pay a certain sum of money specified therein. In the typical checking account situation, the bank is the drawee, the person writing the check is the maker or drawer, and the person to whom the check is written is the payee.  (Barron's 3rd)

"Drawee" means a person ordered in a draft to make payment.  UCC 3-103(2)

A person to whom a bill of exchange is addressed, and who is requested to pay the amount of money therein mentioned.  (Black's 4th)

Drawer :

"Drawer" means the person who signs or is identified in a draft as a person ordering payment.  UCC 3-103(3)

The person drawing a bill of exchange and addressing it to the drawee.  (Black's 4th)

Dummy :

n. One who holds legal title for another; a straw man.
adj. Sham; make-believe; pretended; imitation. As respects basis for predicating liability on parent corporation for acts of subsidiary, "agency," "adjunct," "branch," "instrumentality," "dummy," "buffer," and "tool" all mean very much the same thing.  (Black's 4th)

n. One who purchases property and holds legal title for another, usually to conceal the identity of the true owner; a straw man.
adj. Sham; make-believe; pretended; imitation. Person who serves in place of another, or who serves until the proper person is named or available to take his place (dummy corporate officers; dummy owners of real estate).  (Black's 6th)

Dummy Corporation :

Corporation formed for sham purposes and not for conduct of legitimate business; e.g. formed for sole reason of avoiding personal liability.  (Black's 6th)

Earn :

To aquire by labor, service or performance.  (Black's 4th)

Effigy :

crim. law. The figure or representation of a person.
     2. To make the effigy of a person with an intent to make him the object of ridicule, is a libel. (q.v.) Hawk. b. 1, c. 7 3, s. 2 14 East, 227; 2 Chit. Cr. Law, 866.
     3. In France an execution by effigy or in effigy is adopted in the case of a criminal who has fled from justice. By the public exposure or exhibition of a picture or representation of him on a scaffold, on which his name and the decree condemning him are written, he is deemed to undergo the punishment to which he has been sentenced. Since the adoption of the Code Civil, the practice has been to affix the names, qualities or addition, and the residence of the condemned person, together with an extract from the sentence of condemnation, to a post set upright in the ground, instead of exhibiting a portrait of him on the scaffold. Repertoire de Villargues; Biret, Vo cab.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

The figure or corporeal representation of a person.  (Black's 4th)

Employee :

For purposes of this chapter, the term |"employee" includes an officer, employee, or elected official of the United States, a State, or any political subdivision therof, or the District of Columbia, or any agency or instrumentality of any one or more of the foregoing. The term "employee" also includes an officer of a corporation.  (Internal Revenue Code, Sec. 3401(d) Subtitle C  )

Employer :

For purposes of this chapter, the term "employer" means the person for whom an individual performs or performed any service, of whatever nature, , as the employee of such person, except that (1) if the person for whom the individual performs or performed the services does not have control of the payment of the wages for such services, the term "employer" means the person having control of the payment of such wages.  (Internal Revenue Code Sec. 3401(d) Subtitle C  )

Equity :

Most generally justice, "justice." Historically, "equity" developed as a seperate body of law in England in reaction to the inability of the common law courts, in theri strict adherence to writs and forms of action, to entertain or provide a remedy for every injury. The king therefore established the high court of chancery, the purpose of which was to administer justice according to principles of fairness in cases where the common alw would give no or inadequate redress. Equity law, ro a large extent, was formulated in maxims , such as "equity suffers not a right without a remedy" or "equity follows the law," meaning that equity will derives a means to achieve a lawful result when legal procedure is inadequate. Equity and law are no longer bifurcated but are now merged in most jurisdictions, though equity jurisprudence and equitable doctrines are still independently viable.  (Barron's 3rd)

Equity of Redemption :

A right which the mortgagee of an estate has of redeeming it, after it has been forfeited at law by the non-payment at, the
time appointed of the money secured by the mortgage to be paid, by paying the amount of the debt, interest and costs.
     2. An equity of redemption is a mere creature of a court of equity, founded on this principle, that as a mortgage is a pledge for securing the repayment of a sum of money to the mortgagee, it is but natural justice to consider the ownership of the land as still vested in the mortgagor, subject only to the legal title of the mortgagee, so far as such legal title is necessary to his security.
     3. In Pennsylvania, however, redemption is a legal right. 11 Serg. & Rawle, 223.
     4. The phrase equity of redemption is indiscriminately, though perhaps not correctly applied, to the right of the mortgagor to regain his estate, both before and after breach of condition, In North Carolina by statute the former is called a legal right ofredemption; and the latter the equity of redemption, thereby keeping a just distinction between these estates. 1 N. C. Rev. St. 266; 4 McCord, 340.
     5. Once a mortgage always a mortgage, is a universal rule in equity. The right of redemption is said to be as inseparable from a mortgage, as that of replevying from a distress, and every attempt to limit this right must fail. 2 Chan. Cas. 22; 1 Vern. 33, 190; 2 John. Ch. R. 30; 7 John. Ch. R. 40; 7 Cranch, R. 218; 2 Cowen, 324; 1 Yeates, R. 584; 2 Chan. R. 221; 2 Sumner, R. 487.
     6. The right of redemption exists, not only in the mortgagor himself, but in his heirs, and personal representatives, and assignee, and in every other person who has an interest in, or a legal or equitable lien upon the lands; and therefore a tenant in dower, a jointress, a tenant by the curtesy, a remainder-man and a reversioner, a judgment creditor, and every other incumbrancer, unless he be an incumbrancer pendente lite, may redeem. 4 Kent, Com. 156; 5 Pick. R. 149; 9 John. R. 591, 611; 9 Mass. R. 422; 2 Litt. R. 334; 1 Pick. R. 485; 14 Wend. R. 233; 5 John. Ch. R. 482; 6 N. H. Rep. 25; 7 Vin. Ab. 52. Vide, generally, Cruise, Dig. tit. 15, c. 3; 4 Kent, Com. 148; Pow. on Mortg. eh. 10 and 11; 2 Black. Com. 158; 13 Vin. Ab. 458; 2 Supp. to Ves. Jr. 368; 2 Jac. & Walk. 194, n.; 1 Hill. Ab. c. 31; and article Stellionate.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Escrow :

A scroll, writing, or deed, delivered by the grantor, promisor or obligor into the hands of a third person , to be held by the latter until the happening of a contingency or performance of a condition, and then by him delivered to the grantee, promisee or obligee.
    The state or condition of a deed which is conditionally held by a third person, or the possession and retention of a deed by a third person pending a condition; as when an instrument is said to be delivered "in escrow". This use of the term, however, is a perversion of it's meaning.  (Black's 4th)

A written instrument, such as a deed, temporarily deposited with a neutral third party, the escrow agent, by the agreement of two parties to a valid contract. The escrow agent will deliver the document to thebenefited party when the conditions of the contract have been met. The depositor has no control over the instrument in escrow. In common law, escrow applied to the deposits of instruments for conveyance of land, but now it applies to all instruments so deposited. Money or property so deposited is also loosely referred to as escrow.  (Barron's 3rd)

Estate :

The interest which any one has in lands, or in any other subject of property. An estate in lands, tenements, or hereditaments, signifies such interest as the tenant has therein. The condition or circumstances in which the owner stands with regard to his property. In this sense, "estate" is constantly used in conveyances in connection with the words "right,"title," and "interest," and is, in a great degree, synonymous with all of them.
    The degree, quantity, nature, and extent of interest which a person has in real property is usually referred to as an estate, and it varies from absolute ownership down to naked possession.
    In another sense, "estate" designates the property (real or personal) in which one has a right or interest; the subject-matter of ownership; the corpus of property. Thus we speak of a "valueable estate," "all my estate," "seperate estate," "trust estate," etc.  This, also, is it's meaning in the classification of property into "real estate" and "personal estate."

Examen :

L. Lat.
A trial.
The balance of an account.

Examination :

An investigation; search; interrogating.

Criminal Practice
    An investigation by a magistrate of a person who has been charged with crime and arrested, or of the facts and circumstances which are alleged to have attended the crime and to fasten suspicion upon the party so charged, in order to ascertain whether there is sufficient ground to hold him to bail  for his trial by the proper court.
    The preliminary hearing to determine whether person charged with having committed a crime should be held for trial.

Trial Practice
    The examination of a witness consists of the series of questions put to him by a party to the action, or his counsel, for the purpose of bringing before the court and jury the legal form the knowledge which the witness has of the facts and matters in dispute, or of probing and sifting his evidence previously given.

Of a long account. This phrase does not mean examination of the account to ascertain the result or effect of it, but proof by testimony of correctness of items composing it.

Of bankrupt. This is the interrogation of a bankrupt, in the course of proceedings in bankruptcy, or prior to the adjudication, concerning the conduct of his business, the cause of his bankruptcy, his dealings with his creditors and other persons, the amount, kind, and whereabouts of his property, and all matters which may affect the administration and settlement of his estate. This is authorized Bankruptcy Act, Section 7, 30 Stat. 548, 11 U.S.C.A. Section 25  ..  (Black's 4th)

Examination :

practice. The interrogation of a witness, in order to ascertain his knowledge as to the facts in dispute between parties. When the examination is made by the party who called the witness, it is called an examination in chief. When it is made by the other party, it is known by the name of cross-examination. (q.v.)
     2. The examination is to be made in open court, when practicable; but when,: on account of age, sickness, or other cause, the witness cannot be so examined, then it may be made before authorized commissioners. In the examination in chief the counsel cannot ask leading questions, except in particular cases. Vide Cross-examination; Leading question.
     3. The laws of the several states require the private examination of a feme covert before a competent officer, in order to pass her title to her own real estate or the interest she has in that of her husband: as to the mode in which this is to be done, see Acknowledgment. See, also, 3 Call, R. 394; 5 Mason's R. 59; 1 Hill, R. 110; 4 Leigh, R. 498; 2 Gill & John. 1; 3 Rand. R. 468 1 Monr. R. 49; 3 Monr. R. 397; 1 Edw. R. 572; 3 Yerg. R. 548 1 Yerg. R. 413 3 J. J. Marsh. R. 241 2 A. K. Marsh. R. 67; 6 Wend. R. 9; 1 Dall. 11, 17; 3 Yeates, R. 471; 8 S. & R. 299; 4 S. & R. 273.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Exchange :

To barter; to swap. To part with, give or transfer for an equivalent.

Commercial Law
A negotiation by which one person transfers to another funds which he has in a certain place, either at a price agreed upon or which is fixed by commercial usage.
    The process of settling accounts or debts between parties residing at a distance from each other, without the intervention of money, by exchanging orders or drafts, called bills of exchange; the payment of debts in different places by an exchange or transfer of credits.  (Black's 4th)

Exchequer :

That department of the English government which has charge of the collection of the national revenue; the treasury department.
    It is said to have been so named from the chequered cloth, resembling a chess-board, which anciently covered the table there, and on which, when certain of the king's accounts were made up, the sums were marked and scored with counters.  (Black's 4th)

R, Eng. law. An ancient court of record set up by William the Conqueror. It is called exchequer from the chequered cloth, resembling a chessboard, which covers the table there. 3 Bl. Com. 45. It consists of two divisions; the receipt of the exchequer, which manages the royal revenue; and the court, or judicial part of it, which is again divided into a court of equity, and a court of common law. Id. 44.
     2. In this court all personal actions may be brought, and suits in equity commenced, the plaintiff in both (fictitiously for the most part) alleging himself to be the king's debtor, in order to give the court jurisdiction of the cause. Wooddes. Lect. 69. But by stat. 2 Will. IV. c. 39, s. 1, a change has been made in this respect.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Execution :

contracts. The accomplishment of a thing; as the execution of a bond and warrant of attorney, which is the signing, sealing, and delivery of the same.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Exempt :

v.  To release, discharge, waive, relieve from liability
    To relieve, excuse or set free from a duty or service imposed upon the general class to which the individual exempted belongs; as to exempt from militia service.
    To relieve certain classes of property from liability to sale on execution.  (Black's 4th)

Exemption :

Freedom from a general duty or service; immunity from a general burden, tax, or charge.
    A privilege allowed by law to a judgement debtor, by which he may hold property to a certain amount, or certain classes of property, free from all liability  to levy and sale on execution or attachment.
    A right given by law to a debtor to retain portion of his property free from claims of creditors.
    An "exemption" contemplated by constitutional provision forbidding exemption of property from taxation  is an exemption from all taxation in any form.
    An "exemption" from inheritance tax is a deduction.
    As applied to taxation "exemption" is freedom from burden of enforced contributions to expenses and maintenance of government.
    Deduction made in determining taxable income is an "exemption".  (Black's 4th)

Fiction :

An assumption or supposition of law that something which is or may be false is true, or that a state of facts exists which has never really taken place. An assumption, for purposes of justice, of a fact that does not, or may not exist.
    A rule of law which assumes as true, and will not allow to be disproved, something which is false, but not impossible.

    These assumptions are of an innocent or even beneficial character, and are made for the advancement of the ends of justice. They secure this end chiefly by the extension of procedure from cases to which it is applicable to other cases to which it is not strictly applicable, the ground of inapplicability being some difference of an immaterial character.
    Fictions are to be distinguished from presumptions of law. By the former, something known to be false or unreal is assumed as true; by the latter, an inference is set up, which may be and probably is true, but which, at any rate, the law will not permit to be controverted. It may also be said that a presumption is a rule of law prescribed for the purpose  of getting at a certain conclusion, though arbitrary, where the subject is intrinsically liable to doubt from the remoteness, discrepancy, or actual defect of proofs.  (Black's 4th)

Fiction of Law :

Something known to be false is assumed to be true.  (Blacks 4th)

The assumption that a certain thing is true, and which gives to a person or thing, a quality which is not natural to it, and establishes, consequently, a certain disposition, which, without the fiction, would be repugnant to reason and to truth. It is an order of things which does not exist, but which the law prescribe; or authorizes it differs from presumption, because it establishes as true, something which is false; whereas presumption supplies the proof of something true. Dalloz, Dict. h.t.
See 1 Toull. 171, n. 203; 2 Toull. 217, n. 203; 11 Toull. 11, n. 10, note 2; Ferguson, Moral Philosophy, part 5, c. 10, s. 3 Burgess on Insolvency, 139, 140; Report of the Revisers of the Civil Code of Pennsylvania, March 1, 1832, p. 8.
     2. The law never feigns what is impossible fictum est id quod factum non est sed fieri potuit. Fiction is like art; it imitates nature, but never disfigures it it aids truth, but it ought never to destroy it. It may well suppose that what was possible, but which is not, exists; but it will never feign that what was impossible, actually is. D'Aguesseau, Oeuvres, tome iv. page 427, 47e Plaidoyer.
     3. Fictions were invented by the Roman praetors, who, not possessing the power to abrogate the law, were nevertheless willing to derogate from it, under the pretence of doing equity. Fiction is the resource of weakness, which, in order to obtain its object, assumes as a fact, what is known to be contrary to truth: when the legislator desires to accomplish his object, he need not feign, he commands. Fictions of law owe their origin to the legislative usurpations of the bench. 4 Benth. Ev. 300.
     4. It is said that every fiction must be framed according to the rules of law, and that every legal fiction must have equity for its object. 10 Co. 42; 10 Price's R. 154; Cowp. 177. To prevent, their evil effects, they are not allowed to be carried further than the reasons which introduced them necessarily require. 1 Lill. Ab. 610; Hawk. 320; Best on Pres. Sec. 20.
     5. The law abounds in fictions. That an estate is in abeyance; the doctrine of remitter, by which a party who has been disseised of his freehold, and afterwards acquires a defective title, is remitted to his former good title; that one thing done today, is considered as done, at a preceding time by the doctrine of relation; that, because one thing is proved, another shall be presumed to be true, which is the case in all presumptions; that the heir, executor, and administrator stand by representation, in the place of the deceased are all fictions of law. "Our various introduction of John Doe and Richard Roe," says Mr. Evans, (Poth. on Ob. by Evans, vol. n. p. 43,) "our solemn process upon disseisin by Hugh Hunt; our casually losing and finding a ship (which never was in Europe) in the parish of St. Mary Le Bow, in the ward of Cheap; our trying the validity of a will by an imaginary, wager of five pounds; our imagining and compassing the king's death, by giving information which may defeat an
attack upon an enewy's settlement in the antipodes our charge of picking a pocket, or forging a bill with force and arms; of neglecting to repair a bridge, against the peace of our lord the king, his crown and dignity are circumstances, which, looked at by themselves, would convey an impression of no very favorable nature, with respect to the wisdom of our jurisprudence."
Vide 13 Vin. Ab. 209; Merl. Rep. h.t.; Dane's Ab. Index, h.t.; and Rey, des Inst. de I'Angl. tome 2, p. 219, where he severely cesures these fictions as absurd and useless.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Fictitious :

Founded on a fiction; having the character of a fiction; pretended; counterfeit. Feigned, imaginary, not real, false, not genuine, nonexistent. Bill alleging that amount of mortgage sought to be canceled was "fictitious" held to allege that mortgage was without consideration.  Arbitrarily invented and set up, to accomplish an ulterior object.  (Black's 4th)

Fictitious Name :

A counterfeit, feigned, or pretended name taken by a person, differing in some essential particular from his true name, (consisting of christian name and patronymic,) with the implication that it is meant to deceive or mislead.  (Black's 4th)

Fictitious Plaintiff :

A person appearing in the writ or record as the plaintiff in a suit, but who in reality does not exist, or who is ignorant of the suit and of the use of his name in it. It is a contempt of court to sue in the name of a fictitious plaintiff. (Blacks 4th)

Fiducia :

civil law. A contract by which we sell a thing to some one, that is, transmit to him the property of the thing, with the solemn forms of emancipation, on condition that he will sell it back to us. This species of contract took place in the emancipation of children, in testaments, and in pledges. Poth. Pand. h.t.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Fiduciary :

The term is derived from the Roman law, and means, (as a noun) a person holding the character of a trustee, or a character analogous to that of a trustee, in respect to the trust and confidence involved in it and the scrupulous good faith and candor which it requires.  A person having duty, created by his undertaking, to act primarily for another's benefit in matters connected with such undertaking. (Black's 4th)

Fiduciary Capacity:

One is said to act in a "fiduciary capacity", or to recieve money or contract a debt in a "fiduciary capacity", when the business which he transacts, or the money or property which he handles, is not his own or for his own benefit, but for the benefit of another person, as to whom he stands in a relation implying and necessitating great confidence and trust on one part and a high degree of good faith on the other part. The term is not restricted to technical or express trusts, but includes also such offices or relations as those of an attorney at law, a guardian, executor, or broker, a director of a corporation, and a public officer.  (Black's 4th)

Fiduciary Contract :

An agreement by which one person delivers a thing to another on the condition that he will restore it to him.  (Black's 4th)

Fiduciary Debt :

A debt founded on or arising from some confidence or trust as distinguished from a "debt" founded simply on contract.  (Black's 4th)

Field Warehouse Receipt :

Document isued by warehouseman evidencing receipt of goods whichv have been stored. Such may be used as collateral for loans.  (Black's 6th)

Fine :

v.  To impose a pecuniary punishment or mulct.
To sentence a person convicted of an offense to pay a penalty in money.

n.  A sum of money paid at the end, to make an end of a transaction, suit, or prosecution; mulct; penalty.  A forfeit or forfeiture.  (Black's 4th)

Firm :

The word "firm" is conventional term, applicable only to persons who are members of firm on particular occasion when name is used, and means name, title, or style under which a company transacts business, a partnership of two or more persons, or a commercial house, and is synonymous with "company", "house", "partnership", and "concern".  (Black's 4th)

Fisc :

civil law. The treasury of a prince. The public treasury. Hence to confiscate a thing, is to appropriate it to the fisc. Paillet, Droit Public, 21, n, says that fiscus, in the Roman law, signified the treasure of the prince, and aerarium, the treasure of the state. But this distinction was not observed in France. See Law 10, ff. De jure Fisci.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Fiscal :

Of or pertaining to the public treasury or revenue, of or pertaining to financial matters generally. Belonging to the fisc or public treasury. Relating to accounts or the management of revenue. Of or pertaining to the public finances of a government.  (Black's 4th)

Fiscal Year :

The year by or for which accounts are reckoned, or the year between one annual time of settlement or balancing of accounts and another. An accounting period of twelve months. A period of twelve months (not necessarily concurrent with the calender year) with reference to which appropriations are made and expenditures authorized, and at the end of which accounts are made up and the books balanced. (Black's 4th)

For Value :

See Holder  (Black's 4th)

Foreclosure :

To shut out, to bar, to destroy, to destroy an equity of redemption. A termination of all rights of the mortgagor or his grantee in the property covered by the mortgage.

    A process in chancery by which all further right existing in a mortgagor to redeem the estate is defeated and lost to him, and the estate becomes the absolute property of the mortgagee; being applicable when the mortgagor has forfeited his estate by non-payment of the money due on the mortgage at the time appointed, but still retains the equity of redemption.

    The term is also loosely applied to any of the various methods, statutory or otherwise, known in different jurisdictions, of enforcing payment of the debt secured by a mortgage, by taking and selling the mortgaged estate.

    Foreclosure is also applied to proceeding founded upon some other liens; thus there are proceedings to foreclose a mechanic's lien.  It is a proceeding in court or out of court, when provided for by a valid contract, to subject property or part thereof covered by a lien to payment of debt secured by the lien, and it has effect of  extinguishing all right, title, or interest, if any, of defendants in the property.  (Black's 4th)

Fourteenth Amendment :

The Fourteenth Amendment of the constitution of the United States.

    It became a part of the organic law July 28th, 1868, and it's importance entitles it to special mention. It creates or at least recognizes for the first time a citizenship of the United States, as distinct from that of the states; forbids the making or enforcement by any state of any law abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States; and secures all "persons" against any state action which is either deprivation of life, liberty, or property without due process of law or denial of the equal protection of the laws.  (Black's 4th)

Free :

Not subject to legal constraint of another.
    Unconstrained; having power to follow the dictates of his own will. Not subject to the dominion of another. Not compelled to involuntary servitude. Used in this sense as opposed to "slave".
    Not bound to service for a fixed term of years; in distinction to being bound as an apprentice.
    Enjoying full civic rights.
    Available to all citizens alike without charge; as a free school.
    Available for public use without charge or toll; as a free bridge.
    Not despotic; assuring liberty; defending individual rights against encroachment by any person or class; instituted by a free people; said of governments, institutions, etc..
    Certain, and also consistent with an honorable degree in life; as free services, in the feudal law.
    Confined to the person possessing, instead of being shared by others; as a free fishery.
    Not engaged in a war as a belligerent or ally; neutral; as in the maxim, "Free ships make free goods."  (Black's 4th)

Free and Clear :

(And like phrases).  The title to property is said to be "free and clear" when it is not incumbered by any liens; but it is said that an agreement to convey land "free and clear" is satisfied by a conveyance passing a good title.  (Black's 4th)

Free Law :

A term formerly used in England to designate the freedom of civil rights enjoyed by freemen. It was liable to forfeiture on conviction of treason or an infamous crime.  (Black's 4th)

Freedom :

The state of being free; liberty; self-determination; absence of restraint; the opposite of slavery.

    The power of acting, in the character of a moral personality, according to the dictates of the will, without other check, hinderence, or prohibition than such as may be imposed by just and necessary laws and the duties of social life.
    The prevalence, in the government and constitution of a country, of such a system of laws and institutions as secure civil liberty to the individual citizen.  (Black's 4th)

Freeholder :

One having title to realty. Either of inheritance or for life. Either legal or equitable title.  (Black's 4th)

Freeman :

A person  in the possession and enjoyment of all the civil and political rights accorded to the people under a free government.

    In the Roman law, it denoted one who was either born free or emancipated, and was the opposite of "slave." In feudal law, it designated an allodial proprietor, as distinguished from a vassal or feudal tenant. In old English law, the word descrined a freeholder or tenant by free services; one who was not a villein. In modern legal phraseology, it is the appellation of a member of a city or borough having the right of suffrage, or a member of any municipal corporation invested with full civic rights.  (Black's 4th)

Fund :

v.  To capitalize with a view to the production of interest. Also, to put into the form of bonds, stocks, or other securities, bearing regular interest, and to provide or appropriate a fund or permanent revenue for the payment thereof.
    To fund a debt is to pledge a specific fund to keep down the interest and reduce the principal.

n.  A generic term and all-embracing as compared with term "money," etc., which is specific.
    A sum of money set apart for a specific purpose, or availability for the payment of debts or claims.

    In it's narrower and more usual sense, "fund" signifies "capital", as opposed to "interest" or "income"; as where we speak of a corporation funding the arrears of interest due on it's bonds, or the like, meaning that the interest is capitalized and made to bear interest in it's turn until it is repaid.

    In the plural, this word has a variety of slightly different meanings, as follows :
    Moneys and much more, such as notes, bills, checks, drafts, stocks and bonds, and in broader meaning may include property of every kind.
    Money in hand; assets; cash; money available for the payment of a debt, legacy, etc.
    The proceeds os sales of real and personal estate, or the proceeds of any other assets converted into money.
    Corporate stocks or government securities; in this sense usually spoken of as the "funds."
    Assets, securities, bonds, or revenue of a state or government appropriated for the discharge of it's debts.

Public Funds
    An untechnical name for (1) the revenue or money of a government, state, or municipal corporation; (2) the bonds, stocks, or other securities of a national or state government. Money, warrants, or bonds, or other paper having a money value, and belonging to the state, or to any county, city, incorporated town or school district. The term applies to funds of every political subdivision of state wherein taxes are levied for public purposes.  (Black's 4th)

Gage :

In old English law, a pawn or pledge; something deposited as security for the performance of some act or the payment of money, and to be forfeited on failure or non-performance.  A mortgage is a dead-gage or pledge; for, whatsoever profit it yields, it redeems not itself, unless the whole amount is paid at the appointed time.  (Black's 4th)

Go To Protest :

Commercial paper is said to "go to protest" when it is dishonored by non-payment or non-acceptance and is handed to a notary for protest. (Black's 4th)

Goods :

A term of variable content and meaning. All things which are moveable at the time of identification to the contract for sale, investment securities, and things in action. Also includes the unborn young of animals.  (Black's 6th)

"Goods" includes all things that are moveable at the time the security interest attaches.   UCC 9-105(h)

Government De Facto :

A goverment of fact. A government actually exercising power and control in the state, as opposed to the true and lawful government; a government not established according to the constitution of the state, or not lawfully entitled to recognition or supremacy, but which has nevertheless supplanted or displaced the government de jure. A government deemed unlawful, or deemed wrongful or unjust, which , nevertheless, receives presently habitual obedience from the bulk of the community.

    There are several degrees of what is called "de facto government".  Such a government, in it's highest degree, assumes a character very closely resembling that of a lawful government. This is when the usurping government expels the regular authorities from their customary seats and functions, and establishes itself in their place, and so becomes the actual government of a country. The distinguishing characteristic of such a government is that adherents to it in war against the government de jure do not incur the penalties of treason; and, under certain limitations, obligations assumed by it in behalf of the country or otherwise will, in general, be respected by the government de jure when restored.
    Such a government might be more aptly denominated a "government of paramount force," being maintained by active military power against the rightful authority of an established and lawful government; and obeyed in civil matters by private citizens. They are usually administered directly by military authority, but they may be administered, also, by civil authority, supported more or less by military force.  (Black's 4th)

Government De Jure :

A government of right; the true and lawful government; a government established according to the constitution of the state, and lawfully entitled to recognition and supremacy and the administration of the state, but which is actually cut off from power or control. A government deemed lawful, or deemed rightful or just, which, nevertheless, has been supplanted or displaced; that is to say, which receives not presently (although it received formerly) habitual obedience from the bulk of the community.  (Black's 4th)

Grace :

A favor or indulgence as distinguished from a right. The \lord chancellor was instructed to take cognizance of matters of grace, being such subjects of equity jurisdiction as were exclusively matters of equity.
    A faculty license or dispensation; also general and free pardon by act of parliament.  (Black's 4th)

Guarantee :

One to whom a guaranty is made. This word is also used, as a noun, to denote the contract of guaranty or the obligation of a guarantor, and, as a verb, to denote the action of assuming the responsibilities of a guarantor.  (Black's 4th)

Guaranty :

v.  To undertake collaterally to answer for the payment of another's debt or the performance of another's duty, liability, or obligation; to assume the responsibility of a guarantor; to warrant.  (Black's 4th)

n.  A collateral agreement for performance of another's undertaking. A promise to answer for payment of debt or performance of obligation if person liable in first instance fails to make payment or perform obligation.  An undertaking by one person to be answerable for the payment of some debt, or the due performance of some contract or duty, by another person, who himself remains liable to pay or perform the same.

Synonyms
    The terms guaranty and suretyship are sometimes used interchangeably; but they should not be confounded. The contract of the guarantor is his own seperate contract. . It is in the nature of a warranty by him that the thing guarantied to be done by the principal shall be done, not merely an engagement jointly with the principal to do the thing. The original contract of the principal is not his contract, and he is not bound to take notice of its non-performance.
Guaranty and warranty are derived from the same root, and are in fact etymologically the same word, the "g" of the Norman French being interchangeable with the English "w". They are ofter used colloquially and in commercial transactions as having the same signification, as where a piece of machinery or the produce of an estate is "guarantied" for a term of years, "warranted" being the more appropriate term in such a case. A distinction is also sometimes made in commercial usage, by which the term "guaranty" is understood as a collateral warranty (often a conditional one) against some default or event in the future, while the term "warranty" is taken as meaning an absolute undertaking in proesenti, , against the defect, or for the quantity or quality contemplated by the parties in the subject-matter of the contract. But in strict legal usage the two terms are widely distinguished in this, that a warranty is an absolute undertaking or lianility on the part of the warrantor, and the contract is void unless it is strictly and literally performed, while a guaranty is a promise, entirely collateral to the original contract, and not imposing any primary liability on the guarantor, but binding him to be answerable for the failure or default of another.  (Black's 4th)

Hearing :

Proceeding of relative formality, generally public, with definite issues of fact or of law to be tried, in which parties proceeded against have right to be heard, and is much the same as a trial and may terminate in final order. Synonymous with trial, and includes reception of evidence and arguements thereon. It is frequently used in a broader and more popular significance to describe whatever takes place before magistrates clothed with judicial functions and sitting without jury at any stage of the proceedings subsequent to its inception, and may include proceedings before an auditor.  (Black's 4th)

Hedge :

A purchase of grain to protect against loss due to fluctuations in price.
    To safeguard one's self from loss on a bet or speculation by making compensatory arragements on the other side.  (Black's 4th)

Hedging :

A means by which collectors and exporters of grain or other  products, and manufacturers, who make contracts in advance for the sale of their goods, secure themselves against the fluctuations of the market by counter contracts for the purchase or sale of an equal quantity of the product or of the material of manufacture.  The action of one who buys commodities in selling an equal amount of such commodities on exchange for the purpose of insurance against fluctuations in price.

    The term "hedge," as used in the milling business, means when the miller enters into a contract for the delivery of flour at a future date, he buys wheat on the stock exchange for future delivery, and when he purchases wheat for actual delivery from the grain elevator to fulfill the contract which he had previously made to furnish flour, he sells the wheat which he has bought on the stock exchange.  (Black's 4th)

Hell :

The name formerly given to a place under the exchequer chamber, where the king's debtors were confined.  (Black's 4th)

Holder :

The holder of a bill of exchange, promissory note, or check is the person who has lageally aquired possession of the same, by indorsement or delivery, and whio is entitled to receive payment of the instrument.  (Black's 4th)

Holder in Due Course :

A holder who has taken a bill of exchange (check or note) complete and regular of the face of it, under the following conditions, namely: (a) That he became the holder of it before it was overdue, and without notice that it had been previously dishonored, if such was the fact. (b) That he took the bill (check or note) in good faith and for value, and that at the time it was negotiated to him he had no notice of any defect in the title of the person who negotiated it.  (Black's 4th)

Honor :

v.  To accept a bill of exchange, or to pay a note, check, or accepted bill, at maturity and according to it's tenor.  (Black's 4th)

Hypothecate :

To pledge a thing without delivering the possession of it to the pledgee.  (Black's 4th)

In Camera :

In chambers; in private. A cause is said to be heard in camera either when the hearing is had before a judge in his private room or when all spectators are excluded from the courtroom.  (Black's 4th)

In Common :

Shared in respect to title, use, or enjoyment, without apportionment or division into individual parts; held by several for the equal advantage, use, or enjoyment of all.  (Black's 4th)

Incumbrance :

Any right to, or interest in, land which may subsist in another to the diminution of it's value, but consistent with the passing of the fee.
    A claim, lien, charge, or liability attached to and binding real property. An incumbrance may be a mortage; a judgement lien; a mechanics lien; a lease; restriction in deed; encroachment of a building; an easement or right of way; accrued and unpaid taxes; the statutory right of redemption.
    The term "incumbrance" is sometimes used to denote a burden or charge on personal property as e.g. a chattel mortgage on a stock of goods.  (Black's 4th)

Indicted :

practice. When a man is accused by a bill of indictment preferred by a grand jury, he is said to be indicted. (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Indictment :

An accusation in writing found and presented by a grand jury, legally convoked and sworn, to the court in which it is impaneled, charging that a person therein named has done some act, or been guilty of some omission, which, by law, is a public offense, punishable on indictment.

    A presentment differs from an indictment in that it is an accusation made by a grand jury of their own motion, either upon their own observation and knowledge, or upon evidence before them; while an indictment is preferred at the suit of the government, and is usually framed in the first instance by the prosecuting officer of the government, and by him laid before the grand jury, to be found or ignored. An information resembles in its form and substance an indictment, but is filed at the mere discretion of the proper law officer of the government, without the intervention or approval of a grand jury, and an affidavit is a charge made and preferred by an individual.  (Black's 4th)

Indictment :

crim. law, practice. A written accusation of one or more persons of a crime or misdemeanor, presented to, and preferred upon oath or affirmation, by a grand jury legally convoked. 4 Bl. Com. 299; Co. Litt. 126; 2 Hale, 152; Bac. Ab. h.t.; Com. Dig. h.t. A; 1 Chit. Cr. L. 168.
     2. This word, indictment, is said to be derived from the old French word inditer, which signifies to indicate; to show, or point out. Its object is to indicate the offence charged against the accused. Rey, des Inst. 'Angl. tome 2, p. 347.
     3. To render an indictment valid, there are certain essential and formal requisites. The essential requisites are, 1st. That the indictment be presented to some court having jurisdiction. of the offence stated therein. 2d. That it appear to have been found by the grand jury of the proper county or district. 3d. That the indictment be found a true bill, and signed by the foreman of the grand jury. 4th. That it be framed with sufficient certainty; for this purpose the charge must contain a certain description of the crime or misdemeanor, of which the defendant is accused, and a statement of the facts by which it is constituted, so as to identify the accusation. Cowp. 682, 3; 2 Hale, 167; 1 Binn. R. 201; 3 Binn. R; 533; 1 P. A. Bro. R. 360; 6 S. & R. 398 4 Serg. & Rawle, 194; 4 Bl. Com. 301; Yeates, R. 407; 4 Cranch, R. 167. 5th. The indictment must be in the English language. But if any document in a foreign language, as a libel, be necessarily introduced, it should be set out in the original tongue, and then translated, showing its application. 6 T. R. 162.
     4. Secondly, formal requisites are, 1st. The venue, which, at common law should always be laid in the county where the offence has been committed, although the charge is in its nature transitory, as a battery. Hawk. B. 2, c. 25, s. 35. The venue is stated in the margin thus, "City and county of _____ to wit." 2d. The presentment, which must be in the present tense, and is usually expressed by the following formula, "the grand inquest of the commonwealth of ______ inquiring for the city and county aforesaid, upon their oaths and affirmations present." See, as to the venue, 1 Pike, R. 171; 9 Yerg. 357. 3d. The name and addition of the defendant; but in case an error has been made in this respect, it is cured by the plea of the defendant. Bac. Ab. Misnomer, B; Indictment, G 2; 2 Hale, 175; 1 Chit. Pr. 202. 4th. The names of third persons, when they must be necessarily
mentioned in the indictment, should be stated with certainty to a common intent, so as sufficiently to inform the defendant who are his accusers. When, however, the names of third persons cannot be ascertained, it is sufficient, in some cases, to state "a certain person or persons to the jurors aforesaid unknown." Hawk. B. 2, c. 25, s. 71; 2 East, P. C. 651, 781; 2 Hale, 181; Plowd. 85; Dyer, 97, 286; 8 C. & P. 773. See Unknown. 5th. The time when the offence was committed, should in general be stated to be on a specific year and day. In some offences, as in perjury, the day must be precisely stated; 2 Wash. C. C. Rep. 328; but although it is necessary that a day certain should be laid in the indictment, yet, in general, the prosecutor may give evidence of an offence committed on any other day previous to the finding of the, indictment. 5 Serg. & Rawle, 316. Vide 11
Serg. & Rawle, 177; 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 217, 224; 1 Ch. Pl. Index, tit. Time. See 17 Wend. 475; 2 Dev. 567; 5 How. Mis. 14; 4 Dana. 496; C. & N. 369; 1 Hawks, 460. 6th. The offence should be properly described. This is done by stating the substantial circumstances necessary to show the nature of the crime and, next, the formal allegations and terms of art required by law. 1. As to the substantial circumstances. The whole of the facts of the case necessary to make it appear judicially to the court that the indictors have gone upon sufficient premises, should be set forth; but there should be no unnecessary matter or any thing which on its face makes the indictment repugnant, inconsistent, or absurd. Hale, 183; Hawk. B. 2, c. 25, s. 57; Ab.
h.t. G 1; Com. Dig. h.t. G 3; 2 Leach, 660; 2 Str. 1226. All indictments ought to charge a man with a particular offence, and not with being an offender in general: to this rule there are some exceptions, as indictments against a common barrator, a common scold, and the keeper of a common bawdy house; such persons may be indicted by these general words. 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 230, and the authorities there cited. The offence must not be stated in the disjunctive, so as to leave it uncertain on what it is intended to rely as an accusation; as, that the defendant erected or caused to be. erected a nuisance. 2 Str. 900; 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 236.
     2. There are certain terms of art used, so appropriated by the law to express the precise idea which it entertains of the offence, that no other terms, however synonymous they may seem, are capable of filling the same office: such, for example, as traitorously, (q.v.) in treason; feloniously, (q.v.) in felony; burglariously, (q.v.) in burglary; maim, (q.v.) in mayhem, &c. 7th. The conclusion of the indictment should conform to the provision of the constitution of the state on the subject, where there is
such provision; as in Pennsylvania, Const. art. V., s. 11, which provides, that "all prosecutions shall be carried on in the name and by the authority of the commonwealth of Pennsylvania, and conclude against the peace and dignity of the same." As to the necessity and propriety of having several counts in an indictment, vide 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 248; as to. joinder of several offences in the same indictment, vide 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 253; Arch. Cr. Pl. 60; several defendants may in some cases be joined in the same indictment. Id. 255; Arch. Cr. Pl. 59. When an indictment may be amended, see Id. 297. Stark. Cr. Pl. 286; or quashed, Id. 298 Stark. Cr. Pl. 831; Arch. Cr. 66. Vide; generally, Arch. Cr. Pl. B. 1, part 1, c. 1; p. 1 to 68; Stark. Cr. Pl. 1 to 336; 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 168 to 304; Com. Dig. h.t.: Vin. Ab. h.t.; Bac. Ab. h.t.; Dane's Ab. h.t.; Nels. Ab. h.t.; Burn's Just. h.t.; Russ. on Cr. Index, h.t.,
     5. By the Constitution of the United States, Amend. art. 5, no person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war, or public danger.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Indorsement :

The act of a payee, drawee, accomodation indorser, or holder of a bill, note, check, or other negotiable instrument, in writing his name upon the back of the same, with or without further or qualifying words, whereby the property in the same is assigned and transferred to another.
    That which is so written upon the back of a negotiable instrument.

    In the law of negotiable instruments, a new and substantive contract by which title to the instrument is transferred and by which indorser becomes a party to the instrument, and is liable, on certain conditions for it's payment.  In this respect indorsement differs from a common-law assignment.
    One who writes his name upon a negotiable instrument, otherwise than as a maker or acceptor, and delivers it, with his name thereon, to another person, is called an "indorser," and his act is calld "indorsement".
    The word "indorsement" is also used with reference to writs, insurance policies, certificates of stock, etc. The term as used in the Uniform Stock Transfer Act contemplates a writing passing or attempting to pass title or an interest. As applied to a writ or warrant "indorsement" is an entry made on the back thereof.  (Black's 4th)

Indorsement :

crim. law, practice. When a warrant for the arrest of a person charged with a crime has been issued by a justice of the peace of one county, which is to be executed in another county, it is necessary in some states, as in Pennsylvania, that it should be indorsed by a justice of the county where it is to be executed: this indorsement is called backing. (q.v.)  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Information :

An accusation exhibited against a person for some criminal offense, without an indictment. An accusation in the nature of an indictment, from which it differs only in being presented by a competent public officer on his oath of office, instead of a grand jury on their oath. A written accusation sworn to before a magistrate, upon which an indictment is afterwards founded.

    The word is also frequently used in the law in its sense of communicated knowledge.  And affidavits are frequently made, and pleadings and other documents verified, on information and "belief".

    In French Law. The act or instrument which contains the depositions of wirnesses against the accused.  (Black's 4th)

Informer :

A person who informs or prefers an accusation against another, whom he suspects of a violation of some penal statute.  (Black's 4th)

Inquest :

A body of men appointed by law to inquire into certain matters; as, the inquest examined into the facts connected with the alleged murder; the grand jury, is sometimes called the grand inquest. The judicial inquiry itself is also called an inquest. The finding of such men, upon an investigation, is also called an inquest or an inquisition.
     2. An inquest of office was bound to find for the king upon the direction of the court. The reason given is that the inquest concluded no man of his right, but only gave the king an opportunity to enter so that he could have his right tried. Moore, 730; Vaughan, 135; 3 H. VII. 10; 2 H. IV. 5; 3 Leon. 196.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Inquisition :

practice. An examination of certain facts by a jury impanelled by the sheriff for the purpose; the instrument of writing on which their decision is made is also called an inquisition. The sheriff or coroner and the jury who make the inquisition, are called the inquest.
     2. An inquisition on an untimely death, if omitted by the coroner, may be taken by justices of gaol delivery and oyer and terminer. or of the peace, but it must be done publicly and openly, otherwise it will be quashed. Inquisitions either of the coroner, or of the other jurisdictions, are traversable. 1 Burr. 18, 19.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Inquisitor :

A designation of sheriffs, coroners, super visum corporis, and the like, who have power to inquire into certain matters.
     2. The name, of an officer, among ecclesiastics, who is authorized to inquire into heresies, and the like, and to punish them. An ecclesiastical judge.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Instrument :

A written document; a formal or legal document in writing, such as a contract, deed, will, bond, or lease.

Anything reduced to writing, a document of a formal or solemn character, a writing given as a means of affording evidence. A document or writing which gives formal expression to a legal act or agreement, for the purpose of creating, securing, modifying, or terminating a right; a writing executed and delivered as the evidence of an act or agreement.

In the law of evidence. Anything which may be presented as evidence to the sense of the adjudicating tribunal.  (Black's 4th)

Instrument :

contracts. The writing which contains some agreement, and is so called because it has been prepared as a memorial of what has taken place or been agreed upon. The agreement and the instrument in which it is contained are very different things, the latter being only evidence of the existence of the former. The instrument or form of the contract may be valid, but the contract itself may be void on account of fraud. Vide Ayl. Parerg. 305; Dunl. Ad. Pr. 220. (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Instrument :

An instrument is a "note" if it is a promise and is a "draft" if it is an order. If an instrument falls within the definition of both "note" and "draft," a person entitled to enforce the instrument may treat it as either.  UCC 3-104(e).  "Instrument" means a negotiable instrument (defined in Section 3-104), or a certified security (defined in Section 8-102) or any other writing which evidences a right to the payment and is not itself a security agreement or lease and is of a type which is in ordinary course of business transferred by delivery with any necessary indorsement or assignment.  UCC 9-105(I).

Interest :

    Property
The most general term that can be employed to denote a property in lands or chattels. In it's application to lands or things real, it is frequently used in connection with the terms "estate," "right," and "title," and, according to Lord Coke, it properly includes them all.

More particularly it means a right to have the advantage accruing from anything; any right in the nature of property, but less than title; a partial or undivided right; a title to a share.

    The term "interest" and "title" are not synonymous. A mortgagor in possession, and a purchaser holding under a deed defectively executed, have, both of them, absolute as well as insurable interests in the property, though neither of them has the legal title.

    For Money
Interest is the compensation allowed by law or fixed by the parties for the use or forbearance or detention of money.
(Black's 4th)

Internal Revenue :

In the legislation and fiscal administration of the United States, revenue raised by the imposition of taxes and excises on domestic products or manufactures, and on domestic business and occupations, inheritance taxes, and stamp taxes; as broadly distinguished from "customs duties," i.e. duties or taxes on foreign commerce or on goods imported. (Black's 4th)

Invoice :

In commercial law.  A list or account of goods or merchandise sent by merchants to their correspondents at home or abroad, in which the marks of each package, with other particulars, are set forth. Written itemized accounts sent to a purchaser by the seller of merchandise. A list sent to a purchaser, factor, consignee, etc. containing the items, together with the prices and charges of merchandise sent or to be sent to him. A writing made on behalf of an importer, specifying the merchandise imported, and it's true cost or value.  (Black's 4th)

Issue :

v.  To send forth; to emit; to promulgate; as, an officer issues orders, process issues from a court. To put into circulation; as, the treasury issues notes. To send out, to send out officially; to deliver, for use, or authoritatively; to go forth as authoritative or binding.

    A writ is "issued" when it is delivered to an officer, with the intent to have it served.

n.  The act of issuing, sending forth, emitting or promulgating; the giving a thing its first inception; as the issue of an order or a writ.  (Black's 4th)

Journal :

A daily book; a book in which entries are made or events recorded from day to day.

    In maritime law, the journal (otherwise called "log" or "log-book") is a book kept on every vessel, which contains a brief record of the events and occurances of each day of a voyage, with the nautical observations, course of the ship, account of the weather, etc. In the system of double-entry bookkeeping, the journal is an account-book into which are transcribed, daily or at other intervals, the items entered upon the day-book, for more convenient posting into the ledger. In the usage of legislative bodies, the journal is a daily record of the proceedings of either house. It is kept by the clerk,  and in it are entered the appointments and actions of committees, introduction of bills, motions, votes, resolutions, etc., in the order of their occurance.  (Black's 4th)

Judge-Made Law :

A phrase used to indicate judicial decisions which construe away the meaning of statutes, or find meaning in them the legislature never intended. It is sometimes used as meaning, simply, the law established by judicial precedent.  (Black's 4th)

Judgement :

A sense of knowledge sufficient to comprehend nature of transaction.
An opinion or estimate.
The conclusion in a syllogism having for its major and minor prenises issues raised by the pleadings and the proofs thereon.
The formation of an opinion or notion concerning some thing by exercising the mind upon it.
The official and authentic decision of a court of justice upon the respective rights and claims of the parties to an action or suit therein litigated and submitted to its determination.

    Also it is, or may mean, adjudication; Affirmance by court or compensation award. Conclusion of law upon facts found or admitted by the parties or  upon their default  in the course of the suit; conclusion that naturally follows from the premises of law and fact; debt which court of law finds to be due and orders to be paid.
    A decree is a judgement.
    An allowance or disallowance of a claim may be a judgement.
    An entry on court record may constitute a judgement.
    An order may be a judgement : Compensation proceeding.
    To constitute act of bankruptcy, "judgement" suffered by debtor must be one that has become lien and, as such, a legal preference.  (Black's 4th)

Law, Criminal :

By criminal law is understood that system of laws which provides for the mode of trial of persons charged with criminal offences, defines crimes, and provides for their punishments.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Law, Merchant :

A system of customs acknowledged and taken notice of by all commercial nations; and those customs constitute a part of the general law of the land; and being a part of that law their existence cannot be proved by witnesses, but the judges are bound to take notice of them ex officio. See Beawes' Lex Mercatoria Rediviva; Caines' Lex Mercatoria Americana; Com.
Dig. Merchant, D; Chit. Comm. Law; Pardess. Droit Commercial; Collection des Lois Maritimes anterieure au dix hutiŠme siŠcle, par Dupin; Capmany, Costumbres Maritimas; II Consolato del Mare; Us et Coutumes de la Mer; Piantandia, Della Giurisprudenze Maritina Commerciale, Antica e Moderna; Valin, Commentaire sur l'Ordonnance de la Marine, du Mois d'Aout, 1681; Boulay-Paty, Dr. Comm.; Boucher, Institutions au Droit Maritime.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Law, Municipal :

Municipal law is defined by Mr. Justice Blackstone to be "a rule of civil conduct prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what is right and prohibiting what is wrong." This definition has been criticised, and has been perhaps, justly considered imperfect. The latter part has been thought superabundant to the first; see Mr. Christian's note; and the first too general and indefinite, and too limited in its signification to convey a just idea of the subject. See Law, civil. Mr. Chitty defines municipal law to be "a rule of civil conduct, prescribed by the supreme power in a state, commanding what shall be done or what shall not be done." 1 Bl. Com. 44, note 6, Chitty's edit.
     2. Municipal law, among the Romans, was a law made to govern a particular city or province; this term is derived from the Latin municipium, which among them signified a city which was governed by its own laws, and which had its own magistrates.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Law of Nature :

The law of nature is that which God, the sovereign of the universe, has prescribed to all men, not by any formal promulgation, but by the internal dictate of reason alone. It is discovered by a just consideration of the agreeableness or disagreeableness of human actions to the nature of man; and it comprehends all the duties which we owe either to the Supreme Being, to ourselves, or to our neighbors; as reverence to God, self-defence, temperance, honor to our parents, benevolence to all, a strict
adherence to our engagements, gratitude, and the like. Erskine's Pr. of L. of Scot. B. 1, t. 1, s. 1. See Ayl. Pand. tit. 2, p. 5; Cicer. de Leg. lib. 1.
     2. The primitive laws of nature may be reduced to six, namely: 1. Comparative sagacity, or reason. 2. Self-love. 3. The attraction of the sexes to each other. 4. The tenderness of parents towards their children. 5. The religious sentiment. 6. Sociability.
     3.-1. When man is properly organized, he is able to discover moral good from moral evil; and the study of man proves that man is not only an intelligent, but a free being, and he is therefore responsible for his actions. The judgment we form of our good actions, produces happiness; on the contrary the judgment we form of our bad actions produces unhappiness.
     4.-2. Every animated being is impelled by nature to his own preservation, to defend his life and body from injuries, to shun what may be hurtful, and to provide all things requisite to his existence. Hence the duty to watch over his own preservation. Suicide and duelling are therefore contrary to this law; and a man cannot mutilate himself, nor renounce his liberty.
     5.-3. The attraction of the sexes has been provided for the preservation of the human race, and this law condemns celibacy. The end of marriage proves that polygamy, (q.v.) and polyendry, (q.v.) are contrary
to the law of nature. Hence it follows that the husband and wife have a mutual and exclusive right over each other.
     6.-4. Man from his birth is wholly unable to provide for the least of his necessities; but the love of his parents supplies for this weakness. This is one of the most powerful laws of nature. The principal duties it imposes on the parents, are to bestow on the child all the care its weakness requires, to provide for its necessary food and clothing, to instruct it, to provide for its wants, and to use coercive means for its good, when requisite.
     7.-5. The religious sentiment which leads us naturally towards the Supreme Being, is one of the attributes which belong to humanity alone; and its importance gives it the rank of the moral law of nature. From this sentiment arise all the sects and different forms of worship among men.
     8.-6. The need which man feels to live in society, is one of the primitive laws of nature, whence flow our duties and rights; and the existence of society depends upon the condition that the rights of all shall be respected. On this law are based the assistance, succors and good offices which men owe to each other, they being unable to provide each every thing for himself.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Law, Unwritten :

or lex non scripta :  All the laws which do not come under the definition of written law; it is composed, principally, of the law of nature, the law of nations, the common law, and customs. (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Law Penal :

One which inflicts a penalty for a violation of its enactment. (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Ledger :

A book of accounts in which a trader enters the names of all persons with whom he has dealings; there being two parallel columns in each account, one for the entries to the debit of the person charged, the other for his credits. Into this book are posted the items from the day-book or journal.

    A "ledger" is the principal book of accounts of a business establishment in which all the transactions of each day are entered under appropriate heads so as to show at a glance the debits and credits of each account.  (Black's 4th)

Levy :

v.  To assess; raise; execute; exact; collect; gather; take up; sieze. Thus, to levy (assess, exact, raise, or collect) a tax; to levy (raise or set up) a nuisance; to levy (acknowledge) a fine; to levy (inaugurate) war; to levy an execution, i.e., to levy or collect a sum of money on an execution.

n.  A seizure. An actual making the money out of the property; the obtaining of money by seizure and sale of property. The mental act of determination to sell. The raising of the money for which an execution has been issued. .

    As used in the Uniform Conditional Sales Act, "levy of execution" means the setting aside of specific property from the general property of the debtor and placing it in the custody of the law until it can be sold and applied to the payment of the execution.

    Equitable Levy
The lien in equity created by the filing of the creditors' bill to subject real property of the debtor, and of a lis pendens, is sometimes so called.  The right to an equitable lien is sometimes called an "equitable levy".  (Black's 4th)

Liability :

The word is a broad legal term. It has been referred to as of the most comprehensive significance, including almost every character of hazard or responsibility, absolute, contingent, or likely.

    It has been defined to mean : all character of municipal debts and obligations; amenability or responsibility; an obligation, one is bound in law or justice to perform. An obligation which may or may not ripen into a debt. Any kind of debt or liability, either absolute or contingent, express or implied; any liability whatsoever; condition of being actually or potentially subject to an obligation; condition of being exposed to the upspringing of an obligation to discharge or make good an undertaking of another, or a loss or deficit, or the being exposed or subject to a given contingency, risk, or casualty which is more or less probable; condition of being responsible for a possible or actual loss, penalty, evil, expense, or burden; condition which creates a duty to perform an act immediately or in the future; duty ot pay money or perform some other service; duty which must at least eventually be performed; every kind of legal obligation, responsibility, or duty; fixed liability; legal responsibility; penalty for failure to pay tax when due; present, current, future, fixed, or contingent debts; punishment; responsibility for torts; tax; that which one is under obligation to pay, or for which one is liable; the state of being bound or obliged in law or justice to do, pay, or make good something; the state of one who is bound in law and justice to do something which may be enforced by action; unliquidated claim; unpaid debt.

    The term is therefore broader than the word "debt," or "indebtedness," and includes in addition existing obligations, which may or may not in the future eventuate in an indebtedness.  (Black's 4th)

License :

Certificate or the document itself that gives permission. Permission or authority.  (Black's 4th)

In the law of contracts. A permission, granted by a competent authority, conferring the right to do some act which without such authorization would be illegal, or would be a trespass or tort.  (Black's 1st)

A permit, granted by an appropriate governmental body, generally for a consideration, to a person, firm, or corporation to pursue some occupation or to carry on some business subject to regulation under the police power. A license is not a contract between the state and the licensee, but is a mere personal permit.  (Black's 6th)

License :

contracts. A right given by some competent authority to do an act, which without such authority would be illegal. The instrument or writing which secures this right, is also called a license. Vide Ayl. Parerg, 353; 15 Vin. Ab. 92; Ang. Wat. Co. 61, 85.
     2. A license is express or implied. An express license is one which in direct terms authorizes the performance of a certain act; as a license to keep a tavern given by public authority.
     3. An implied license is one which though not expressly given, may be presumed from the acts of the party having a right to give it. The following are examples of such licenses: 1. When a man knocks at another's door, and it is opened, the act of opening the door licenses the former to enter the house for any lawful purpose. See Hob. 62. A servant is, in consequence of
his employment, licensed to admit to the house, those who come on his master's business, but only such persons. Selw. N. P. 999; Cro. Eliz. 246. It may, however, be inferred from circumstances that the servant has authority to invite whom he pleases to the house, for lawful purposes. See 2 Greenl. Ev. Sec. 427; Entry.
     4. A license is either a bare authority, without interest, or it is coupled with an interest. 1. A bare license must be executed by the party to whom it is given in person, and cannot be made over or assigned by him to another; and, being without consideration, may be revoked at pleasure, as long as it remains executory; 39 Hen. VI. M. 12, page 7; but when carried into effect, either partially or altogether, it can only be rescinded, if in its nature it will admit of revocation, by placing the other side in the same situation in which he stood before he entered on its execution. 8 East, R. 308; Palm. 71; S. C. Poph. 151; S. C. 2 Roll. Rep. 143, 152.
     5.-2. When the license is coupled with an interest the authority conferred is not properly a mere permission, but amounts to a grant, which cannot be revoked, and it may then be assigned to a third person. 5 Hen. V., M. 1, page 1; 2 Mod. 317; 7 Bing. 693; 8 East, 309; 5 B. & C. 221; 7 D. & R. 783; Crabb on R. P. Sec. 521 to 525; 14 S. & R 267; 4 S. & R. 241; 2 Eq. Cas. Ab. 522. When the license is coupled with an interest, the formalities essential to confer such interest should be observed. Say. R. 3; 6 East, R. 602; 8 East, R. 310, note. See 14 S. & R. 267; 4 S. & R. 241; 2 Eq. Cas. Ab. 522; 11 Ad. & El. 34, 39; S. C. 39 Eng, C. L. R. 19.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Lien :

A qualified right of property which a creditor has in or over specific specific property  of his debtor, as security for the debt or charge or the performance of some act.  (Black's 1st)

A charge or security or incumbrance upon property.

    A claim or charge on property for payment of some debt, obligation, or duty; hold or claim which one person has upon the property of another for some debt or charge; obligation, tie, duty or claim annexed to or attaching upon property by the common law, equity, contract or statute, without satisfying which such property, cannot be lawfully demanded by another; pledging of the assets available to pay the corporate liablities. Preferred or privileged claims given by statute or by admiralty law; qualified right of property which a creditor has in or over specific property of his debtor, as security for the debt or charge or for performance of some act; right to detain property; right or claim against som einterest in property created by law as an incident of contract; right to enforce charge upon property of another for payment or satisfaction of debt or claim. Right to retain property for payment of debt or demand. Security for a debt, duty, or other obligation; tie that vinds property to a debt or claim for its satisfaction.
    A "claim" is generally a liability in personam but capable of embracing both a personal liability and a lien on property, while a lien is a liability in rem.
    A lien is a charge imposed upon specific property, whereas an assignment, unless in some way qualified, is properly the transfer of one's whole interest in an estate, or chattel, or other thing.  (Black's 4th)

Liquidate :

To pay and settle.
Also to liquidate means to adjust; to ascertain the amount, or the several amounts, of the liabilities of insolvent and apportion the assets towards discharge of the indebtedness; to ascertain the balance due and to whom payable; to assemble and mobilize the assets, settle with the creditors and the debtors and apportion the remaining assets, if any, among the stockholders or owners; to clear up; to determine by agreement or litigation precise amount of indebtedness; to discharge; to extinguise an indebtedness; to gather in the assets, convert them into cash and distribute them according to the legal rights of the parties interested; to make amount of indebtedness clear and certain; to reduce to precision in amount and to satisfy; to sell; to "wind up" affairs of a business.  (Black's 4th)

Maker :

"Maker" means a person who signs or is identified in a note as a person undertaking to pay.  UCC 3-103(5)

The person who creates or executes a note, that is, issues it, and in signing the instrument makes the promise of payment contained therein. One who signs a check; in this context, synonymous with drawer.  (Black's 6th)

Margin :

The edge or border; the edge of a body of water where it meets the land. As applied to a boundary line of land, the "margin" of a river, creek, or other watercourse means the center of the stream. But in the case of  lake, bay, or natural pond, the "margin" means the line where land and water meet.

A sum of money, or its equivalent, placed in the hands of a stockbroker by the principal or person on whose account a purchase or sale is to be made, as a security to the former against losses to which he may be exposed by subsequent fluctuations in the market value of the stock. (Black's 4th)

May :

To be permitted; to be at liberty; to have the power.
     2. Whenever a statute directs the doing of a thing for the sake of justice or the public good, the word may is the same as shall. For example, the 23 H. VI. says, the sheriff may take bail, that is construed he shall, for he is compellable to do so. Carth. 293 Salk. 609; Skin. 370.
     3. The words shall and may in general acts of the legislature or in private constitutions, are to be construed imperatively; 3. Atk. 166; but the construction of those words in a deed depends on circumstances. 3 Atk. 282. See 1 Vern. 152, case. 142 9 Porter, R. 390.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

An auxiliary verb qualifying the meaning of another verb by expressing ability, competency, libery, permission, possibility, probability, or contingency. Regardless of the instrument, however, whether constitution, statute, deed, contract or whatnot, , courts not infrequently construe "may" as "shall" or "must" to the end that justice may not be the slave of grammer.  (Black's 4th)

Measure :

That by which extent or dimension is ascertained, either length, breadth, thickness, capacity, or amount. Webster. The rule by which anything is adjusted or proportioned.  (Black's 4th)

Measure of Value :

In the ordinary sense of the word, "measure" would mean something by comparison with whchc we may ascertain what is the value of anything. When we consider, further, that value itself is relative, and that two things are necessary to constitute it, independently of the third thing, which is to measure it, we may define a "measure of value" to be something by comparing with which any two other things we may infer their value in relation to one another. (Black's 4th)

Medium of Exchange :

A substance used to transfer energy from one source to another.  (Amer. Heritage Dictionary)

Mens Rea :

A guilty mind; a guilty or wrongful purpose; a criminal intent. Guilty knowledge and willfulness.  (Black's 4th)

Mercantile Law :

An expression substantially equivalent to the law-merchant or commercial law. It designated the system of rules, customs, and usages generally recognized and adopted by merchants and traders, and which, either in its simplicity or as modified by common law or statutes, constitutes the law for the regulation of their transactions and the solution of their controversies.  (Black's 4th)

Merchant :

One who is engaged in the purchase and sale of goods; a trafficer; a trader.  (Black's 4th)

Ministerial Duty :

One regarding which nothing is left to discretion -- a simple and definate duty, imposed by law, and arising under conditions admitted or proved to exist.  It arises when an individual has such a legal interest in its performance that neglect of performance becomes a wrong to such individual.  (Black's 4th)

Minute-Book :

A book kept by the clerk or prothonotary of a court for entering memoranda of its proceedings.  (Black's 4th)

Minutes :

Business Law.  Memoranda or notes of a transaction or proceeding. Thus, the record of the proceedings at a meeting of directors or shareholders of a company is called the "minutes".

Practice. A memoranda of what takes place in court, made by authority of the court. (Black's 4th)

Monetary :

The usual meaning is "pertaining to coinage or currency or having to do with money", but it has been held to include personal property.  (Black's 4th)

Money :

"Money" means a medium of exchange authorized or adopted by government.  UCC 1-201(24)

In usual and ordinary acceptation it means gold, silver, or paper money used as circulating medium of exchange, and does not embrace notes, bonds, evidences of debt, or other personal or real estate. Currency; the circulating medium; cash.

    The term "moneys" is not of more extensive signification than "money," and means only cash, and not things in action.

    In its strict technical sense, "money" means coined metal, usually gold or silver, upon which the government stamp has been impressed to indicate its value. In its more popular sense, "money" means any currency, tokens, bank-notes, or other circulating medium in general use as the representative of value.

    The simple meaning of "money" is current coin, but it may mean possessions expressible in money values. "Money" has no technical meaning, but is of ambiguous import, and may be interpreted having regard to all surrounding circumstances under which it is used. "Money" is often and popularly used as equivalent to "property". "Money" means wealth reckoned in terms of money; capital considered as a cash asset; specifically such wealth or capital dealt in as a commodity to be loaned, invested, or the like; welath considered as a cash asset.

    In its more comprehensive and general sense, it means wealth,-- the representative of commodities of all kinds, of lands, and of everything that can be transferred in commerce.  A general, indefinite term for the measure and representative of value.

    Public Money.
Revenue. Money received by officers of the state in the ordinary process of taxation. Under a municipal charter, money or funds belonging to a city; moneys which are owing or payable to the city in its corporate capacity, such as assessments, license fees, or moneys derived from the sales of property, wharfage charges, and such like. Under a statute, all money which by way the sheriff in his capacity as such and as treasurer of the county and district is authorized to collect, receive, and disburse for public purposes. As used in the United States statutes, the money of the federal government received from the public revenues, or intrusted to its fiscal officers, wherever it may be.

As to money "Broker," "Count," "Judgement," and "Scrivener". See those titles.  (Black's 4th)

Moral Law :

The law of conscience; the aggregate of those rules and principles of ethics which relate to right and wrong conduct and prescribe the standards to which the actions of men should conform in their dealings with each other.  (Black's 4th)

Mortgage :

An estate created by a conveyance absolute in its form, but intended to secure the performance of some act, such as the payment of money, and the like,  by the grantor or some other person, and to become void if the act is performed agreeably to the terms prescribed at the time of making such conveyance.
A conditional conveyance of land.
A transfer of property passing conditionally as security for debt.
A debt by specialty, secured by a pledge of lands, of which the legal ownership is vested in the creditor, but of which, in equity, the debtor and those claiming under him remain the actual owners, until debarred by judicial sentence or their own laches.
The foregoing definitions are applicable to the common-law conception of a mortgage. But in many states in modern times, it is regarded as a mere lien, and not as creating a title or estate. It is a pledge or security of particular property for the payment of a debt or the performance  of some other obligation, whatever form the transaction may take, but is not now regarded as a conveyance in effect, though it may be cast in the form of a conveyance.  (Black's 4th)

Municipal Bonds :

Evidences of indebtedness issued by cities or other corporate public body, negotiable in form, payable at designated future time, and intended for sale in market with object of raising money for municipal expense, which is beyond immediate resources of reasonable taxation, as distinguished from temporary evidences of debt, such as vouchers, certificates of indebtedness, orders, or drafts drawn by one officer on another and similar devices for liquidating current obligations in anticipation of collection of taxes.  (Black's 4th)

Municipal Warrants :

A municipal warrant or order is an instrument, generally in the form of a bill of exchange, drawn by an officer of a municipality upon its treasurer, directing him to pay an amount of money specified therein to the person named or his order, or to bearer.  (Black's 4th)

National Debt :

The money owing by government to some of the public, the interest of which is paid out of the taxes raised by the whole of the public.  (Black's 4th)

Natural Law :

This expression "natural law," or jus naturale, was largely used in the philosophical speculations of the Roman jurists of the Antonine age, and was intended to denote a system of rules and principles for the guidance of human conduct which, independently of enacted law or of the systems peculiar to any one people, might be discovered by the rational intelligence of man, and would be found to grow out of and conform to his nature, meaning by that word his whole mental, moral, and physical constitution. The point of departure for this conception was the Stoic doctrine of a life ordered "according to nature," which in its turn rested upon the purely supposititious existence, in primitive times, of a "state of nature;" that is, a condition of society in which men universally were governed solely by a rational and consistent obedience to the needs, impulses, and promptings of their true nature, such nature being as yet undefaced by dishonesty, falsehood, or indulgence of the baser passions.  (Black's 4th)

Negotiable :

Capable of being transferred by indorsement or delivery so as to pass to holder the right to sue in his own nameand take free of equities against assignor payee.

    An instrument embodying an obligation for the payment of money is called "negotiable" when the legal title to the  instrument itself and to the whole amount of money expressed upon its face, with the right to sue therefor in his own name, may be transferred from one person to another without a formal assignment, but by mere indorsement and delivery by the holder or by delivery only.  (Black's 4th)

That which is capable of being transferred by assignment; a thing, the title to which may be transferred by a sale and indorsement or delivery.
     2. A chose in action was not assignable at common law, and therefore contracts or agreements could not be negotiated. But exceptions have been allowed to this rule in relation to simple contracts, and others have been introduced by legislative acts. So that, now, bills of exchange, promissory notes, bills of lading, bank notes, payable to order, or to bearer, and, in some states, bonds and other specialties, may be transferred by assignment, indorsement, or by delivery, when the instrument is payable to bearer.
     3. When a claim is assigned which is not negotiable at law, such, for example, as a book debt, the title to it remains at law in the assigner, but the assignee is entitled to it in equity, and he may therefore recover it in the assignor's name. See, generally, Hare & Wall. Sel. Dec. 158 to 194 Negotiable paper.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Negotiable Instruments :

Any written securities which may be transferred by indorsement and delivery or by delivery merely, so as to vest in the indorsee the legal title, and thus enable him to sue theron in his own name. Or, more technically, those instruments which not only carry the legal title with them by indorsement or delivery, but carry as well, when transferred before maturity, the right of the transferee to demand the full amounts which their faces call for.

    A negotiable instrument is a written promise or request for the payment of a certain sum of money to order or bearer.

    A general name for bills, notes, checks, trade acceptances, letters of credit, and other negotiable written securities.

    Under the Uniform Negotiable Instruments Act, an instrument, to be negotiable, must be in writing and signed; must contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a certain sum of money on demand, or at a fixed and determinable future time; it must be payable to order or to bearer, and where it is addressed to the drawee, he must be named ot otherwise indicated with reasonable certainty; its negotiability is not affected by the fact that it is not dated, or that it bears a seal, or that it does not specify the value given or that any value was given. (Black's 4th)

Negotiation :

The deliberation, discussion, or conference upon the terms of a proposed agreement; the act of settling or arranging the terms and conditions of a bargain, sale, or other business transaction.
The act by which a bill of exchange or promissory note is put into circulation by being passed by one of the original parties to another person.  (Black's 4th)

Note :

n.  A unilateral instrument containing an express and absolute promise of signer to pay to a specified person or order, or bearer, a definite sum of money at a specified time. An abstract, a memorandum; an informal statement in writing.  (Black's 4th)

A writing acknowledging a debt and promising payment. For the instrument to be negotiable it must be signed by the maker and contain an unconditional promise to pay a sum certain in money on demand or at a definite time to order or to bearer. A note is not payment but only a promise to pay. The term note is synonymous with promissory note. The term may be qualified by its unique characteristics. For example, a note that is backed by a pledge of collateral such a as real or persoanl property is called a secured note.  (Barron's 3rd)

Obligation :

A generic word, derived from the Latin substantive "obligatio," having many, wide, and varied meanings, according to the context in which it is used. That which a person is bound to do or forbear; any duty imposed by law, promise, contract, relations of society, courtesy, kindness, etc. Duty. Duty imposed by law. Law or duty binding parties to perform their agreement. An undertaking to perform. That which constitutes a legal or moral duty and which renders a person liable to coercion and punishment for neglecting it; a word of broad meaning, and the particular meaning intended is to be gained by consideration of its context. An obligation ot debt may exist by reason of a judgement as well as an express contract, in either case there being a legal duty on the part of the one bound to comply with the promise. Liabilities created by contract or law; or tort. As legal term word originally meant a sealed bond, but it now extends to any certain written promise to pay money or do a specific thing. A formal and binding agreement or acknowledgement of a liability to pay a certain sum or do a certain thing. (Black's 4th)

Offense :

A crime or misdemeanor; a breach of the criminal laws.
It is used as a genus, comprehending every crime and misdemeanor, or as a species, signifying a crime not indictable, but punishable summarily or by the forfeiture of a penalty.

    The word "offense," while sometimes used in various senses, generally implies a crime or a misdemeanor infringing public as distinguished from mere private rights, and punishable under the criminal laws, though it may also include the violation of a criminal statute for which the remedy is merely a civil suit to recover the penalty.

    Under a statute, declaring that one guilty of an offense or fault causing another damage is obliged to repair it, , "offense" or "fault" has the same meaning as "tort"; and a criminal contempt has been held to be an "offense."  (Black's 4th)

Offer :

v.  To bring to or before; to present for acceptance or rejection; to hold out or proffer; to make a proposal to; to exhibit something that may be taken or received or not.
To attempt or endeavor; to make an effort to effect some object, as, to offer to bribe; in this sense used principally in criminal law.

    In trial practice, to "offer" evidence is to state its nature and purport, or to recite what is expected to be proved by a given witness or document, and demand its admission. Unless under exceptional circumstances, the term is not to be taken as equivalent to "introduce".

    The word "offer," as used in a statute providing that the buyer, to rescind a sale, must offer within a reasonable time to return the goods, is synonymous with the word "tender."

n.  A proposal; a proposal to do a thing.
An attempt; endeavor. Webster
An offer of evidence. See the verb "offer".
An act on the part of one person whereby he gives to another the legal power of creating the obligation called contract.

    An offer, as an element of a contract, is a proposal to make a contract. It must be made by the person who is to make the promise, and it must be made to the person to whom the promise is made. It may be made either by words or by signs, either orally or in writing, and either personally or by a messenger; but in whatever way it is made, it is not in law an offer until it comes to the knowledge of the person to whom it is made.

    An "offer" must be so definite in its terms, or require such definite terms in acceptance, that the promises and performances to be rendered by each party are reasonably certain.

    An "offer to sell" merely contemplates the proffer, proposal, presentation, or exhibition of somethin gto another for acceptance or rejection.  (Black's 4th)

Order :

contracts. An indorsement or short writing put upon the back of a negotiable bill or note, for the purpose of passing the title to it, and making it payable to another person.
     2. When a bill or note is payable to order, which is generally expressed by this formula, "to A B, or order,"or" to the order of A B," in this case the payee, A B may either receive the money secured by such instrument, or by his order, which is generally done by a simple indorsement, (q.v.) pass the right to receive it to another. But a bill or note wanting these words, although not negotiable, does not lose the general qualities of such instruments. 6 T. R. 123; 6 Taunt. 328; Russ. & Ry. C. C.
300; 3 Caines, 137; 9 John. 217. Vide Bill of Exchange; Indorsement.
     3. An informal bill of exchange or a paper which requires one person to pay or deliver to another goods on account of the maker to a third party, is called an order.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

"Order" means a written instruction to pay money signed by the person giving the instruction. The instruction may be adrressed to any person, including the person giving the instruction, or to one or more persons jointly or in the alternative, but not in succession. An authorization to pay is not an order unless the person authorized to pay is also instructed to pay.  UCC 3-103 (6)

Order :

A mandate, precept; a command or direction authoritatively given; a rule or regulation.

    The distinction between "order" and "requisition" is that the first is a mandatory act, the latter a request.

An informal bill of exchange or letter of request whereby the party to whom it is addressed is directed to pay or deliver to a person therein named the whole or part of a fund or other property of the person making the order, and which is in the possession of the drawee. A designation of the person to whom a bill of exchange or negotiable promissory note is to be paid.

It is used to designate a rank, class, or division of men; as the order of nobles. order of knights, order of priests, etc.

    Orders are also issued by subordinate legislative authorities. Such are the English orders in council, or orders issued by the privy council in the name of the king, either in exercise of the royal prerogative or in pursuance of an act of parliament. The rules of court under the judicature act are grouped together in the form of orders, each order dealing with a particular subject-matter.

   In French law. The name order (ordre) is given to the operation which has for its object to fix the rank of the preferences claimed by the creditors in the distribution of the price [arising from the sale] of an immovable affected by their liens.

Practice.
Every direction of a court or judge made or entered in writing, and not included in a judgement. An application for an order is a motion.  (Black's 4th)

Ownership :

title to property. The right by which a thing belongs to some one in particular, to the exclusion of all other persons. Louis. Code, art. 480.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Party :

"Party" means a party to an instrument.  UCC 3-103(8)

Passport :

In International Law.
A document issued to a neutral merchant vessel, by her own government, during the progress of a war, and to be carried on the voyage, containing a sufficient description of the vessel, master, voyage, and cargo to evidence her nationality and protect her against the cruisers of the belligerent powers. This paper is otherwise called a "pass," "sea-pass," "sea-letter," or "sea-brief". A license or safe conduct, issued during the progress of a war authorizing a person to remove himself or his effects from the territory of one of the belligerent nations to another country, or to travel from country to country without arrest or detention on account of the war.  (Black's 1st)

Maritime Law. A paper containing a permission from the neutral state to the captain or master of a ship or vessel to proceed on the voyage proposed; it usually contains his name and residence; the name, property, description, tonnage and destination of the ship; the nature and quantity of the cargo; the place from whence it comes, and its destination; with such other matters as the practice of the place requires.
     2. This document is indispensably necessary in time of war for the safety of every neutral vessel. Marsh. Ins. B. 1, c. 9, s. 6, p. 406, b.
     3. In most countries of continental Europe passports are given to travellers; these are intended to protect them on their journey from all molestation, while they are obedient to the laws. Passports are also granted by the secretary of state to persons travelling abroad, certifying that they are citizens of the United States. 9 Pet. 692. Vide 1 Kent, Com. 162, 182; Merl. Repert. h.t.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Pawn :

v. To deliver personal property to another in pledge, or as security for a debt or sum borrowed.  (Black's 4th)

n.  A bailment of goods to a creditor as security for some debt or engagement; a pledge.

A pledge.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Pay :

v.  To discharge a debt; ; to deliver to a cerditor the value of a debt, either in money or in goods, for his acceptance.
The term, however, is sometimes limited to discharging an indebtedness by the use of money.  (Black's 4th)

Payee :

In mercantile law. The person in whose favor a bill of exchange, promissory note, or check is made or drawn; the person to whom or to whose order a bill, note, or check is made payable.  (Black's 4th)

Pecuniary :

Monetary; relating to money; financial; consisting of money or that which can be valued in money.  (Black's 4th)

Penal :

Punishable; inflicting a punishment; containing a penalty, or relating to a penalty.  (Black's 4th)

Penal Sum :

A sum agreed upon in a bond, to be forfeited if the condition of the bond is not fulfilled.  (Black's 4th)

Penalty :

The sum of money which the obligor of a bond undertakes to pay in the event of his omitting to perform or carry out the terms imposed upon him by the conditions of the bond. An agreement to pay a greater sum, to secure the payment of a less sum. It is conditional, and can be avoided by the payment of the less sum before the contingency agreed upon shall happen. By what name it is called is immaterial. A punishment; a punishment imposed by statute as a consequence of the commission of an offense. Also money recoverable by virtue of  a statute imposing a payment by way of punishment.

    To constitute a "punishment" or "penalty" there must be a deprivation of property or some right, such as the enjoyment of liberty.  (Black's 4th)

Peon :

In Mexico. A debtor held by his creditor in a qualified servitude to work out the debt; a serf.
In India.  A footman; a soldier; an inferior officer; a servant employed in the business of the revenue, police, or judicature.  (Black's 4th)

Peonage :

The state or condition of a peon as above defined; a condition of enforced servitute, by which the servitor is restrained of his liberty and compelled to labor in liquidation of some debt or obligation, real or pretended, against his will.  (Black's 4th)

Perfect :

Complete; finished; executed; enforceable; without defect; merchantable; marketable.  (Black's 4th)

Perfection of Security Interest :

In secured transactions law, the process whereby a  security interest is protected, as far as the law permits, against competing claims to the collateral, which usually requires the secures party to give notice of the interest  as by filing in the government office (e.g. in office of Secretary of State). Perfection of a security interest deals with those steps legally required to give a secured party interest in subject property against debtor's creditors.  (Black's 6th)

A security interest is perfected when it has attached and when all the applicable steps  required for perfection have been taken. Such steps are specified in Sections 9-302, 9-304, 9-305, and 9-306. If such steps are taken before the security interest attaches, it is perfected at the time when it attaches.  UCC 9-303(1).

Perform :

To perform an obligation or contract is to execute, fulfill, or accomplish it according to its terms. This may consist either in action on the part of the person bound by the contract or in omission to act, according to the nature of the subject-matter; but the term is usually applied to any action in discharge of a contract other than payment.  (Black's 4th)

Person :

A man considered according to the rank he holds in society, with all the right to which the place he holds entitles him, and the duties which it imposes.
The word in its natural and usual signification includes women as well as men.
Term may include artificial beings, as corporations, quasi-corporations, territorial corporations, and foreign corporations under statutes, forbidding the taking of property without due process of law and giving to all persons the equal protection of the laws; concerning claims arising from Indian depredations; relating to taxation and the revenue laws; to attachments; usurious contracts; applying to limitations of actions; and concerning the admissability as a witness of a party in his own behalf when the opposite party is a living person.. A corporation is also a person under a penal statute. Corporations are "persons" as that word is used in the first clause of the XIV Amendment. But a corporation of another state is not a "person" within the jurisdiction of the state until it has complied with the conditions of admission to do business in the state, and a statutory requirement of such conditions is not in conflict with the XIV Amendment.

It may include partnerships. Also firms.

    "Persons" are of two kinds, natural and artificial. A natural person is a human being. Artificial persons include a collection or succession of natural persons forming a corporation; a collection of property to which the law attributes the capacity of having rights and duties. The latter class of artificial persons is recognized only to a limited extent in our law. Examples are the estate of a bankrupt or deceased person.

    It has been held that when the word person is used in a legislative act, natural persons will be intended unless something appear in the context to show that it applies to artificial persons; but as a rule corporations will be considered persons within the statutes unless the intention of the legislature is manifestly to exclude them.

    A county is a person in a legal sense; but a sovereign is not.

    In the United States bankruptcy act of 1898, it is provided that the word "persons" shall include corporations, except where otherwise specified, and officers, partnerships, and women, and, when used with reference to the commission of acts which are therein forbidden, shall include persons who are participants in the forbidden acts, and the agents, officers, and members of the board of directors or trustees, or their controlling bodies of corporations.  (Black's 4th)

Petition :

A written address, embodying an application or prayer from the person or persons preferring it, rto the power, body, or person to whom it is presented for the exercise of his or their authority in the redress of some wrong, or the grant of some favor, privilege, or license.  (Black's 4th)

Petition in Bankruptcy :

A paper filed in court of bankruptcy, or with the clerk, by a debtor praying for the benefits of the bankruptcy act, or by creditors alleging the commission of an act of bankruptcy by their debtor and praying an adjudication of bankruptcy against him.  (Black's 4th)

Plaintiff :

A person who brings an action; the party who complains or sues in a personal action and is so named on the record.  (Black's 4th)

Plea :

Common-law practice. A pleading; any one in the series of pleadings. More particularly, the first pleading on the part of the defendant. In the strictest sense, the answer which the defendant in an action at law makes to the plaintiffs declaration, and in which he sets up matter of fact as defense, thus distinguished from a demurrer, which interposes objections on grounds of law.

Equity.  A special answer showing or relying upon one or more things as a cause why the suit should be either dismissed or delayed or barred.

A short statement, in response to a bill in equity, of facts which, if inserted in the bill, would render it demurrable; while an answer is a complete statement of the defendant's case, and contains answers to any interrogatories the palaintiff may have administered.  (Black's 4th)

Pledge :

In the law of bailment. A bailment of goods to a creditor as security for some debt or engagement. A bailment or delivery of goods by a debtor to his creditor, to be kept till the debt be discharged.

The necessary elements to constitute a contract one of "pledge" are: Possession of the pledged property must pass from the pledgor to the pledgee; the legal title to the property must remain in the pledgor; and the pledgee must have a lien on the property for the payment of a debt or the performance of an obligation due him by the pledgor or some other person -- while, in the "chattel mortgage," legal title passes to thew mortgagee subject to a defeasance.

A bailment of personal property as security for a debt or other obligation.

The specific article delivered to the creditor in security is also called a "pledge" or "pawn".  (Black's 4th)

Policy :

The general principles by which a government is guided in its management of public affairs, or the legislature in its measures

This term, as applied to a law, ordinance, or rule of law, denotes its general purpose or tendency considered as directed to the welfare or prosperity of the state or community.

Public Policy.
That principle of the law which holds that no subject can lawfully do that  which has a tendency to be injurious to the public or against the public good. The principles under which the freedom of contract or private dealings is restricted by law for the good of the community. The term "policy," as applied to a statute, regulation, rule of law, course of action, or the like, refers to its probable effect, tendency, or object, considered with reference to the social or political well-being of the state. Thus, certain classes of acts are said to be "against pulbic policy," when the law refuses to enforce or recognize them, on the ground that they have a mischievous tendency, so as to be injurious to the interests of the state, apart from illegality or immorality.

    "Public policy" is the community common sense and common conscience extended and applied throughout the state to matters of public morals, public health, public safety, public welfare, and the like; it is that general and well-settled opinion relating to man's plain, palpable duty to his fellow men having due regard to all the circumstances of each particular relation and situation.  Public policy properly cognizable by courts is that derived or derivable by clear implication from it's constitution, statutes, and judicial decisions. "Public policy is a variable quality; it must and does vary with the habits, capacities, and opportunities of the public".  (Black's 4th)

Preferred :

Possessing or according a priority, advantage, or privilege. Generally denoting a prior or superior claim or right of payment as against another thing of the same kind or class.  (Black's 4th)

Premium :

A reward for an act done.
A bounty or bonus; a consideration given to invite a loan or a bargain; as the consideration paid ot the assignor by the assignee of a lease, or to the transferrer by the transferee of shares of stock, etc.  So stock is said to be "at a premium" when its market price exceeds its nominal or face value

In granting a lease, part of the rent is sometimes capitalized and paid in a lump sum at the time the lease is granted. This is called a "premium".

The sum paid or agreed to be paid by an assured to the underwriter as the consideration for the insurance.  (Black's 4th)

Present :

v.  In English ecclesiastical law. To offer a clerk to the bishop of the diocese, to be instituted.

In criminal law. To find or represent judicially; used of the official act of a grand jury when they take notice of a crime or offense from their own knowledge or observation, without any bill of indictment laid before them. To lay before judge, magistrate, or governing body for action or consideration; submit as a petition or remonstrance for a decision or settlement to proper aythorities.

In the law of negotiable instruments. Primarily, to present is to tender or offer. Thus to present a bill of exchange for acceptance or payment is to exhibit it to the drawee or acceptor, (or his authorized agent,) with an express or implied demand for acceptance or payment.

Claims are "presented" to the probate court when placed in the custody of the court, or filed or made a matter of record therein; and to present claim against city, within statute providing that claims for damages against the city must be "presented" to the city or town council and filed with the city or town clerk, means to hand to and leave with.  (Black's 4th)

Presentment :

Criminal Practice.
The written notice taken by a grand jury of any offense, from their own knowledge or observation, without any bill of indictment laid before them at the suit of the government. Presentments are also made in courts-leet and courts-baron, before the stewards.
The writing which contains the accusation so presented by a grand jury.
In an extended sense, the term includes not only presentments properly so called, but also inquisitions of office and indictments found by a grand jury.

    An informal statement in writing, by the grand jury, representing to the court that a public offense has been committed which is triable in the county, and that there is reasonable ground for believing that a particular individual named or described therein has committed it. An accusation of crime, made by a grand jury from their own knowledge or from evidence furnished them by witnesses or by one or more of their members.

    The difference between a presentment and an inquisition is this : that the former is found by a grand jury authorized to inquire
 of offenses generally, whereas the latter is an accusation found by a jury specially returned to inquire concerning the particular offense.

    An indictment differs from a presentment in that the former must be indorsed "A true bill," followed by the signature of the grand jury foreman; a presentment is to be signed by all the grand jurors, and hence does not have to be indorsed "A true bill."

    The distinction between a special presentment and a bill of indictment, even under the old practice, was very thin; and in Georgia even this distinction has been abolished in practice for many years. The solicitor is not now required to frame any indictment on a special presentment, but the special presentment of the grand jury is returned into court, and upon it the defendant is arraigned and tried. It has the same force and effect as a bill of indictment. The only formal difference between the two is that a prosecutor prefers a bill of indictment, and a special presentment has no prosecutor, but, in theory originates with the grand jury. Even this difference between a bill of indictment and a special presentment no longer exists, and the finding of the grand jury is prepared by the solicitor-general and called a bill of indictment, or a special presentment, at his will.

Negotiable Instruments
The production of a bill of exchange to the drawee for his acceptance, or to the drawor or acceptor for payment; or of a promissory note to the party liable, for payment of the same.  (Black's 4th)

"Presentment" means a demand made by or on behalf of a person entitled to enforce an instrument (1) rto pay the instrument made to the drawee or a party obliged to pay the instrument, or in the case of a note, or accepted draft payable at a bank, to the bank, or (2) to accept a draft made to the drawee.  UCC 3-501(a)  may be made by any commercially reasonable means, including an oral, written, or electronic communication; is effective when the demand for payment or acceptance is received by the person to whom presentment is made.  UCC 3-501(1)  The production of a negotiable instrument [bill of exchange] to the drawee for his acceptance, or to the drawer or acceptor for payment; or of a promissory note to the party liable, for payment of the same. Presentment is a demand for acceptance or payment made upon the maker, acceptor, drawee or other payor by or on behalf of the holder.  UCC 3-504(1).

Presumption :

A presumption is an assumption of fact that the law requires to be made from another fact or group of facts found or otherwise established in the action. A presumption is not evidence. A presumption is either conclusive or rebuttable. Every rebuttable presumption is either (a) a presumption affecting the burden of producing evidence or (b) a presumption affecting the burden of proof.  (Black's 6th)

A disputable presumption, called also an "inconclusive" or "rebuttable" presumption, is an inference of law which holds good until it is invalidated by proof or a stronger presumption.  (Black's 4th)

Presumption; Third Party Documents; Admissability :

(1) A bill of lading or any other document authorized or required by the contract to be issued by a third party is admissable as evidence of the facts stated in the document by the third party in any action arising out of the contract which authorized or required the document (2) In any action arising out of the contract  which authorized or required the document refereed to in subdivision (1). (a) A document in due form purporting to be the document referred to in subdivision (1) is presumed to be authentic and genuine. This presumption is a presumption affecting the burden of producing evidence. (b) If the document is found to be authentic and genuine, the facts stated in the document by the third party are presumed to be true. This presumption is a presumption affecting the burden of proof.  UCC 1-202

Price :

Something which one ordinaroly accepts voluntarily in exchange for something else. The consideration given for the purchase of a thing; usually in money.  (Black's 4th)

Prime :

n.  In French Law. The price of the risk assumed by an insurer; premium of insurance.
v.  To stand first or paramount; to take precedence or priority of; to outrank; as, in the sentence "taxes prime all other liens."
 (Black's 4th)

Principal :

adj.  Chief; leading; most important or considerable; primary; original. Highest in rank, authority, character, importance, or degree.
n.  The source of authority or right. A superintendent, as of a school district. The capital sum of a debt or obligation, as distinguished from interest, or other additions to it. The corpus or capital of an estate in contradistinction to the income; "income" being merely the fruit of capital.

Law of Agency.
The employer or constitutor of an agent; the person who gives authority to an agent or attorney to do some act for him. Called also constituent or chief. One, who, being competent sui juris to do any act for his own benefit or on his own account, confides it to another person to do for him.  (Black's 4th)

Principle :

A fundamental truth or doctrine, as of law; a comprehensive rule or doctrine which furnishes a basis or origin for others; a settled rule of action, procedure, or legal determination. A truth or proposition so clear that it cannot be proved or contradicted unless by a proposition which is still clearer. That which constitutes the essence of a body or its constituent parts. That which pertains to the theoretical part of a science.  (Black's 4th)

Priority :

Precedence; going before. A legal preference or precedence. When two persons have similar right in respect of the same subject-matter, but one is entitled to exercise his right to the exclusion of the other, he is said to have priority.  (Black's 4th)

Private :

Affecting or belonging to private individuals, as distict from the public generally. Not official; not clothed with office.  (Black's 4th)

Private Law :

As used in contradistinction to public law, the term means all that part of the law which is administered between citizen and citizen, or which is concerned with the definition, regulation, and enforcement of rights in cases where both the person in whom the right inheres and the person upon whom the obligation is incident are private individuals.  (Black's 4th)

Private Bank :

An unincorporated banking institution owned by an individual or partnership and, depending on state statutes, subject to or free from state regulation.  (Black's 1st)

Prize :

mar. law, war. The apprehension and detention at sea, of a ship or other vessel, by authority of a belligerent power, either with the design of appropriating it, with the goods and effects it contains, or with that of becoming master of the whole or a part of its cargo. 1 Rob. Adm. R. 228. The vessel or goods thus taken are also called a prize. Goods taken on land from a public enemy, are called booty, (q.v.) and the distinction between a prize and booty consists in this, that the former is taken at sea and the latter
on land.
     2. In order to vest the title of the prize in the captors, it must be brought with due care into some convenient port for adjudication by a competent court. The condemnation must be pronounced by a prize court of the government of the captor sitting in the country of the captor, or his ally; the prize court of an ally cannot condemn. Strictly speaking, as between the belligerent parties the title passes, and is vested when the capture is complete; and that was formerly held to be complete and perfect when the battle was over, and the spes recuperandi was gone. 1 Kent, Com. 100; Abbott on Ship. Index, h.t.; 13 Vin. Ab. 51; 8 Com. Dig. 885; 2 Bro. Civ. Law, 444; Harr. Dig. Ship. and Shipping, X; Merl. Repert. h.t.; Bouv. Inst. Index.
h.t. Vide Infra praesidia.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Prize Court :

Eng. law The name of court which has jurisdiction of all captures made in war on the high seas.
     2. In England this is a separate branch of the court of admiralty, the other branch being called the instance court. (q.v.)
     3. The district courts of the United States have jurisdiction both as instance and prize courts, there being no distinction in this respect as in England. 3 Dall. 6; vide 1 Gall. R. 563; Bro. Civ. & Adm. Law, ch. 6 & 7; 1 Kent, Com. 356; Mann. Comm. B. 3, c. 12.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Proceeding :

In a general sense, the form and manner of conducting juridical business before a court or judicial officer; regular and orderly progress in form of law; including all possible steps in an action from its commencement to the execution of judgement.
In a more particular sense, any application to a court of justice, however made, for aid in the enforcement of rights, for relief, for redress of injuries, for damages, or for any remedial object.  (Black's 4th)

Promissory Note :

A promise or engagement, in writing, to pay a specified sum at a time therein limited, or on demand, or at sight, to a person therein named, or to his order, or bearer. A written promise made by one or more to pay another, or order, or bearer, at a specified time, a specific amount of money, or other articles of value. An unconditional written promise, signed by the maker, to pay absolutely and at all events a sum certain in money, either to the bearer or to a person therein designated or his order, at a time specified therein, or at a time which must certainly arrive.  (Black's 4th)

Pronounce :

To utter formally, officially, and solumnly; to declare or affirm; to declare aloud and in a formal manner. In this sense a court is said to "pronounce" judgement or a sentence.   (Black's 4th)

Public :

n.  The whole body politic, or the aggregate of the citizens of a state, district, or municipality. The inhabitants of a state, county, or community. In one sense, everybody; and accordingly the body of the people at large; the community at large, without reference to the geographical limits of any corporation like a city, town, or county; the people. In another sense the word does not mean all the people, nor most of the people, nor very many people of a place, but so many of them as contradistinguishes them from a few. Accordingly, it has been defined or employed as meaning the inhabitants of a partivular place; the people of the neighborhood. Also, a part of the inhabitants of a community.

adj. Pertaining to a state, nation, or whole community; proceeding from, relating to, or affecting the whole body of people or an entire community. Op;en to all; notorious. Common to all or many; general; open to common use. Belonging to the people at large; relating to or affecting the whole people of a state, nation, or community; not limited or restricted to any particular class of the community.  (Black's 4th)

That vast multitude, which includes thew ignorant, the unthinking, and the credulous, who in making a purchase, do not stop to analyze, but are governed by general appearance and General impressions.  (Ballantine's Law Dictionary)

Public Debt :

That which is due or owing by the government.
     2. The constitution of the United States provides, art. 6, s. 1, that "all debts contracted or engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this constitution, as under the confederation." It has invariably been the policy since the Revolution, to do justice to the creditors of the government. The public debt has sometimes been swelled to a large amount, and at other times it has been reduced to almost nothing.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Punishment :

In criminal law. Any pain, penalty, or confinement inflicted upon a person by the authority of the law and the judgement and sentence of a court for some crime or offense committed by him, or for his ommission of a duty enjoined by law. A deprivation of property or some right. But does not include a civil penalty redounding to the benefit of an individual, such as a forfeiture of interest.  (Black's 4th)

Purchase :

Transmission of property from one person to another by voluntary act and agreement, founded on a valueable consideration. In a technical and broader meaning relative to land generally means the aquisition of real estate by any means whatever except by descent.  (Black's 4th)

Puts and Calls :

A "put" in the language of the grain or stock market is a privilege or delivering or not delivering the subject-matter of the sale; and a "call" is a privilege of calling or not calling for it.  (Black's 4th)

Question :

A subject or point of investigation, examination or debate; theme of inquiry; problem; matter to be inquired into; as a delicate or doubtful question.
A method of criminal examination heretofore in use in some of the countries of continental Europe, consisting of the application of torture to the supposed criminal, by means of the rack or other engines, in order to extort from him, as the condition of his release from the torture, a confession of his own guilt or the names of his accomplices.

Evidence.
An interrogation put to a witness, for the purpose of having him declare the truth of certain facts as far as he knows them.

Practice.
A point on which the parties are not agreed, and which is submitted to the decision of a judge or jury.  (Black's 4th)

Quo Warranto :

In old English practice. A writ, in the nature of a writ of right for the king, against him who claimed or usurped any office, franchise, or liberty to inquire by what authority he supported his claim, in order to determine the right. It lay also in case of non-user, or long neglect of a franchise, or misuser or abuse of it; being a writ commanding the defendant to show by what warrant he exercises such a franchise, having never had any grant of it, or having forfeited it by neglect or abuse.

In England, and quite generally throughout the United States, this writ has given place to an "information in the nature of a quo warranto," which, though in form a criminal proceeding, is in effect a civil remedy simialr to the old writ, and is the method now usually employed for trying the title to a corporate or other franchise, or to a public or corporate office. An extraordinary proceeding, prerogative in nature, addressed to preventing a continued exercise of authority unlawfully asserted.  (Black's 4th)

Rate :

Proportional or relative value, measure, or degree; the proportion or standard by which quantity or value is adjusted.
In connection with public utilities, a charge to the public for a service open to all and upon the same terms.  (Black's 4th)

Recognizance :

An obligation of record, entered into before some court of record, or magistrate duly authorized, with condition to do some particular act; as to appear at the assizes, or criminal court, to keep the peace, to pay a debt, or the like. It resembles a bond, but differs from it in being an acknowledgement of a former debt upon record.

In the practice of several of the states, a species of bail bond or security, given by the prisoner either on being bound over for trial or on his taking an appeal.

In criminal law, a person who has been found guilty of an offense may, in certain cases, be required to enter into a recognizance by which he binds himself to keep the peace for a certain period.

    In criminal cases, a "bail bond" is a contract under seal, executed by accused, and from its nature requiring sureties or bail, to whose custody he is committed, while a "recognizance" is an obligation of record, entered into before some court or magistrate authorized to take it, with condition to do some particular act, and a prisoner is often allowed so to obligate himself to answer to the charge.  (Black's 4th)

Redemption :

A repurchase; a buying back. The act of a vendor of property in buying it back again from the purchaser at the same or an enhanced price.

The process of annulling and revoking a conditional sale of property, by performance of the conditions on which it was stipulated to be revocable.

The process of cancelling and annulling a defeasable title to land, such as is created by a mortgage or a tax-sale, by paying the debt or fulfilling the other conditions.

The liberation of an estate from a mortgage.

The liberation of a chattel from pledge or pawn, by paying the debt for which it stood as security.

Repurchase of notes, bills, or other evidences of debt, (particularly bank-notes and paper-money,) by paying their value in coin to their holders.  (Black's 4th)

Deliverance from the power of an alien domination and the enjoyment of the resultant freedom. It involves the idea of restoration to one who possesses a more fundamental right or interest.  (Zondervans Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible)

Registered Bond :

The bonds of the United States government (and of many municipal and private corporations) are either registered or "coupon bonds." In the case of a registered bond, the name of the owner or lawful holder is entered in a register or record, and it is not negotiable or transferable except by an entry on the register, and checks or warrants are sent to the registered holder for the successive installments of interest as they fall due. A bond with interest coupons attached is transferable by mere delivery, and the coupons are payable, as due, to the person who shall present them for payment. But the bond issues of many private corporations now provide that the individual bonds "may be registered as to principal," leaving the interest coupons payable to bearer, or that they may be registered as to both principal and interest, at the option of the holder.  (Black's 4th)

Registry :

A register, or book authorized or recognized by law, kept for the recording or registration of facts or documents. The act of recording or writing in the register or depositing in the place of public records.

In commercial law. The registration of a vessel at the custom-house, for the purpose of entitling her to the full privileges of a British or American built vessel.  (Black's 4th)

Release :

n.  The relinquishment, concession, or giving up of a right, claim, or privilege, by the persom in whom it exists or to whom it accrues, to the person against whom it might have been demanded or enforced.

    In this sense it is a contract and must be supported by lawful and valuable consideration.

    A discharge of a debt by act of party, as distinguished from an extinguishment which is a discharge by operation of law, and, in distinguishing release from receipt, "receipt" is evidence that an obligation has been discharged, but "release" is itself, a discharge of it.  (Black's 4th)

Remedy :

Remedy is the means by which the violation of a right is prevented, redressed, or compensated.  (Black's 1st)

The purpose is to make it clear that both remedy and rights (as defined) include those remedial rights of "self help" which are among the most important bodies of rights under this Act, remedial rights, being those which an aggrieved party can resort on his own motion.  UCC 1-201(34)

Replevin Bond :

A bond executed to indemnify the officer who executed a writ of replevin and to indemnify the defendant or person from whoes custody the property was taken for such damages as he may sustain.  (Black's 4th)

Request :

n.  An asking or petition; the expression of a desire to some person for something to be granted or done; particularly for the payment of a debt or performance of a contract; also direction or command in law of wills.

    The two words "request" and "require," as used in notice to creditors to present claims against an estate, are of the same origin, and virually synonymous.  (Black's 4th)

Res :

property. Things. The terms "Res," "Bona," "Biens," used by jurists who have written in the Latin and French languages, are intended to include movable or personal, as well as immovable or real property. 1 Burge, Confl. of Laws, 19. See Biens; Bona; Things.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Responsible :

Liable, legally accountable or answerable. Able to pay a sum for which he is or may become liable, or to discharge an obligation which he may be under.  (Black's 4th)

Retail :

To sell by small quantities, in broken lots or parcels, not in bulk, to selldirect to consumer.  (Black's 4th)

Return :

To bring, carry, or send back; to place in the custody of; to restore; to re-deliver; to send back.  (Black's 4th)

Revenue :

Return, yield, as of land, profit, that which returns or comes back from an investment, the annual or periodical rents profits, interest or issues of any species or property, real or personal, income.

Also the income from an individual or private corporation.

As applied to the income of a government, a broad and general term, including all public moneys which the state collects and receives, from whatever source and in whatever manner. The income which a state collects and receives into its treasury, and is appropriated for the payment of its expenses.

Revenue Law.
Any law which provides for the assessment and collection of a tax to defray the expenses of the government. Such legislation is commonly referred to under the general term "revenue measures," and those measures include all the laws by which the government provides means for meeting its expenditures.  (Black's 4th)

Right of Redemption :

The right to disincumber property or to free it from a claim or lien; specifically, the right (granted by statute only) to free property from the incumbrance of a forclosure or other judicial sale, or to recover the title passing thereby, by payin gwhat is due, with interest, costs, etc.  Not to be confounded with the "equity of redemption," which exists independently of statute but must be exercised before sale.  (Black's 4th)

Right(s) :

"Rights" includes remedies.  UCC 1-201(36).

Sale :

A contract between two parties, called, respectively, the "seller" (or vendor) and the "buyer" (or purchaser,) by which the former, in consideration of the payment or promise of payment of a certain price in money, transfers to the latter the title and the possession of property.

A contract whereby property is transferred by one person to another for a consideration of value, implying the passing of the general and absolute title, as distinguished from a special interest falling short of complete ownership.  (Black's 4th)

Sanctions :

In the original sense of the word, a penalty or punishment provided as a means of enforcing obedience to a law. In a more general sense, a conditional evil annexed to a law to produce obedience to that law. (Blacks 4th)

Satisfaction :

Act of satisfying; the state of being satisfied. The discharge of an obligation by paying a party what is due to him, (as on a mortgage, lien, or contract,) or what is awarded to him, by the judgement of a court or otherwise. Thus, a judgement is satisfied by the payment of the amount due to the party who has recovered such judgement, or by his levying the amount. The execution or carrying into effect  of an accord.  (Black's 4th)

Satisfy :

To answer or discharge, as a claim, debt, legal demand or the like. To comply actually and fully with a demand; to extinguish, by payment or performance.  (Black's 4th)

Secure :

To give security; to assure of payment, performance, or indemnity; to guaranty or make certain the payment of a debt or discharge of an obligation.

    On e"secures" his creditors by giving him a lien, mortgage, pledge, or other security, to be used in case the debtor fails to make payment.

Also, not exposed to danger; safe; so strong, stable or firm as to insure safety.  (Black's 4th)

Secured Party :

"Secured Party" means a lender, seller or other person in whose favor there is a security interest, including a person to whom accounts or chattel paper have been sold. When the holders of obligations issued under an indenture of trust, equipment trust agreement or the like are represented by a trustee or other person, the representative is the secured party.  UCC 9-105(m)

Securities :

Stock certificates, bonds, or other evidence of a secured indebtedness or of a right created in the holder to participate in the profits or assets distribution of a profit-making enterprise; more generally, written assurances for the return or payment of money; instruments giving to their legal holders right to money or other property. As such, securities have value and are used in regular channels of commerce. The basic purpose of the sale of securities is to raise capital for business and government.  (Black's 4th)

Security :

Protection; assurance; indemnification. The term is usually applied to an obligation, pledge, mortgage, deposit, lien, etc., given by a debtor in order to make sure the payment or performance of his debt, by furnishing the creditor with a resource to be used in case of failure in the principal obligation. The name is also sometimes given to one who becomes surety or guarantor for another.  (Black's 4th)

Security Agreeement :

"Security agreement" means an agreement which creates or provides for a security interest.  UCC 9-105. An agreement which creates or provides for a security interest between the debtor and the secured party.  UCC 9-105(h)

An agreement granting a creditor a security interest in personal property, which security interest is normally perfected either by the creditor taking possession of the collateral or by filing financing statements in the proper public records.  (Black's 6th)

Security Interest :

"Security interest" means an interest in personal property or fixtures which secures payment or performance of an obligation.  UCC 1-201(37)(a).  A form of interest in property which provides that the property may be sold on default in order to satisfy the obligation for which the security interest is given.  UCC 9-102.   A security interest is perfected when it has attached and when all the applicable steps required for perfection have been taken. Such steps are specified  in Sections 9-302, 9-304, 9-305 and 9-306. If such steps are taken before the security interest attaches, it is perfected at the time when it attaches.  UCC 9-303(1).

Lien created by an agreement.  (Bankruptcy Code Section 101)

Interest in property obtained pursuant to security agreement.  (Black's 6th)

Sentence :

The judgement formally pronounced by the court or judge upon the defendant after his conviction in a criminal prosecution, awarding the punishment to be inflicted. Judgement formally declaring to accused legal consequences of guilt which he has confessed or of which he has been convicted. The word is properly confined to this meaning. In civil cases, the terms "judgement," "decision," "award," "finding," etc. are used.  (Black's 4th)

A judgment, or judicial declaration made by a judge in a cause. The term judgment is more usually applied to civil, and sentence to criminal proceedings.
     2. Sentences are final, when they put, an end to the case; or interlocutory, when they settle only some incidental matter which has arisen in the course of its progress. Vide Aso & Man. Inst. B. 3, t. 8, c. 1.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Sight Draft :

A bill of exchange for the immediate payment of money.  (Barron's 3rd)

A bill of exchange for the immediate collection of money.  (Black's 6th)

Signed :

"Signed" includes any written symbol executed or adopted by a party with present intention to authenticate a writing.  UCC 1-201(39)

Single Entry :

A term used among merchants signifying that the entry is made to charge or to credit an individual or thing, without, at the same time, presenting any other part of the operation; it is used in contradistinction to double entry. (q.v.) For example, a single entry is made, A B debtor, or A B creditor, without designating what are the connexions between the entry and the objects which composed the fortune of the merchant.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Solvency :

Ability to pay debts as they mature.  Ability to pay debts in the usual and ordinary course of business. Present ability of debtor to pay out of his estate all his debts. Excess of assets over liabilities. Also such attitude of a person's property as that it may be reached and subjected by process of law, without his consent, to the payment of such debts. The opposite of insolvency.  (Black's 4th)

Statement :

In a general sense, an allegation; a declaration of matters of fact. The term has come to be used of a variety of formal narratives of facts, required by law in various jurisdictions as the foundation of judicial or official proceedings and in a limited sense is a formal, exact, detailed presentation.  (Black's 4th)

Stock :

Mercantile Law.
The goods and wares of a merchant or tradesman, kept for sale and traffic.
In the larger sense. The capital of a merchant or other person, including his merchandise, money, and credits, or, in other words, the entire property employed in business.

    "Stock" is distinguished from "bonds" and, ordinarily, from "debentures," in that it gives right of ownership in part of assets of corporation and right to interest in any surplus after payment of debt.  (Black's 4th)

Stramineus Homo:

L. Lat. A man of straw, one of no substance, put forward as bail or surety. (Black's 4th)

Strawman:

A "front", a third party who is put up in name only to take part in a transaction in name only. Nominal party to a transaction.  (Black's 6th)

The term is also used in commercial and property contexts when a transfer is made to a third party, the straw man, simply for the purpose of retransferring to the transferor in order to accomplish some other purpose not otherwise permitted.  (Barron's 3rd)

Sum :

In English law. A summary or abstract; a compendium; a collection. Several of the old law treatises are called "sums."
The sense in which th eterm is most commonly used is "money"; a quantity of money or currency; any amount indefinitely, a sum of money, a small sum, or a large sum.  (Black's 4th)

Supervisor :

A surveyor or overseer; a highway officer. Also, in some states, the chief officer of a town; one of a board of county officers.
In a broad sense, one having authority over others, to superintend and direct.  (Black's 4th)

Surety :

One who undertakes to pay money or to do any other act in event that his principal falls therein. One bound with his principal for the payment of a sum of money or for the performance of some duty or promise and who is entitled to be indemnified by some one  who ought to have paid or performed if payment or performance be enforced against him. Everyone who incurs a liability in person or estate, for the benefit of another, without sharing in the consideration. stands in the position of a "surety," whatever may be the form of his obligation.

    A surety is an insurer of the debt or obligation; a guarantor is an insurer of the solvency of the principal debtor or of his ability to pay.  (Black's 4th)

Surrender :

To give back; yield; render up; restore; and in law the giving up of an estate to the person who has it in reversion or remainder, so as to merge it in the larger estate; the giving up of a lease before its expiration; yielding up a tenency in a copyhold estate to the lord of the manor for a specified purpose; a deed by which surrender is made; the giving up by a bankrupt of his property to his creditors or their assignees; also, his due appearance in the bankruptcy court for examination as formerly required by the bankruptcy acts.

    "Surrender" is contractual act and occurs only through consent of both parties.  (Black's 4th)

Suspense :

When a rent, profit a prendre, and the like, are, in consequence of the unity of possession of the rent, &c., of the land out of which they issue, not in esse for a time, they are said to be in suspense, tunc dormiunt, but they may be revived or awakened. Co, Litt. 313 a.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Tacit Hypothecation :

In the civil law, a species of lien or mortgage which is created by operation of law without any express agreement of the parties. In admiralty law, this term is sometimes applied to a maritime lien, which is not, strictly speaking, an hypothecation in the Roman sense of the term, though it resembles it.  (Black's 4th)

Tax :

A rate or sum of money assessed on a citizen's person, property, or activity for the support of a government levied upon real assets or real property (property tax), upon income derived from wages, etc. (income tax), or upon sale or purchase of goods (sales tax).  (Barron's 3rd)

Tax Return :

The form on which an individual, corporation or other entity reports income, deductions and exemptions and calculates their tax liability, A tax return is generally for a one year period, however, in some cases, the period may be less than a year. A federal tax return is filed with the Internal Revenue Service, and a state return is filed with the revenue department of the state.  (Black's 6th)

Tender :

An offer of money; the act by which one produces and offers to a person holding a claim or demand against him the amount of money which he considers and admits to be due, in satisfaction of such claim or demand, without any stipulation or condition.

    The offer of performance, not performance itself, and, when unjustifiably refused, places other party in default and permits party making tender to exercise remedies for breach of contract.

    The actual proffer of money, as distinguished from mere proposal or proposition to proffer it. Hence mere written proposal to pay money, without offer of cash, is not "tender."

Tender, though usually used in connection with an offer to pay money, is properly used in connection with offer of property other than money.

Tender, in pleading, is a plea by defendent that he has been always ready to pay the debt demanded, and before the commencement of the action tendered it to the plaintiff, and now brings it into court ready to be paid to him.

Legal tender is that kind of coin, money, or circulating medium which the law compels a creditor to accept in payment of his debt, when tendered by the debtor in the right amount.  (Black's 4th)

Test :

To bring one to trial and examination, or to ascertain the truth  or the quality or fitness of a thing.
Something by which to ascertain the truth respecting another thing; a criterion, gauge, standard, or norm.  (Black's 4th)

Testify :

To bear witness; to give evidence as a witness; to make a solumn declaration, under oath or affirmation, in a judicial inquiry, for the purpose of establishing or proving some fact.  (Black's 4th)

Title :

estates. A title is defined by Lord Coke to be the means whereby the owner of lands hath the just possession of his property. Co. Lit. 345; 2 Bl. Com. 195. Vide 1 Ohio Rep. 349. This is the definition of title to lands only.
     2. There are several stages or degrees requisite to form a complete title to lands and tenements. 1st. The lowest and most imperfect degree of title is the mere possession, or actual occupation of the estate, without any apparent right to hold or continue such possession; this happens when one man disseises another. 2 Bl. Com. 195. 2dly. The next step to a good and
perfect title is the right of possession, which may reside in one man, while the actual possession is not in himself, but in another. This right of possession is of two sorts; an apparent right of possession, which may be defeated by proving a better; and an actual right of possession, which willstand the test against all opponents. Idem. 196. 3dly. The mere right ofproperty, the jus proprietatis without either possession or the right ofpossession. Id. 197.
     3. A title is either good, marketable, doubtful, or bad.
     4. A good title is that which entitles a man by right to a property orestate, and to the lawful possession of the same.
     5. A marketable title is one which a court of equity considers to be soclear that it will enforce its acceptance by a purchaser. The ordinary acceptation of the term marketable title, would convey but a very imperfectnotion of its legal and technical import.
     6. To common apprehension, unfettered by the technical and conventional distinction of lawyers, all titles being either good or bad, the former would be considered marketable, the latter non-marketable. But this is notthe way they are regarded in courts of equity, the distinction taken therebeing not between a title which is absolutely good or absolutely bad, but between a title, which the court considers to be so clear that it willenforce its acceptance by a purchaser, and one which the court will not go so far as to declare a bad title, but only that it is subject to so much doubt that a purchaser ought not to be compelled to accept it. 1 Jac. & Walk. R. 568. In short, whatever may be the private opinion of the court, asto the goodness of the title yet if there be a reasonable doubt either as to a matter of law or fact involved in it, a purchaser will not be compelled to complete his purchase; and such a title, though it may be perfectly secure and unimpeachable as a holding title is said, in the current language of the day, to be unmarketable. Atkins on Tit.2.
     7. The doctrine of marketable titles is purely equitable and of modern origin. Id. 26. At law every title not bad is marketable. 6 Taunt. R. 263; 5 Taunt. R. 625; S. C. 1 Marsh., R. 258. See Dalzell v. Crawford, 2 Penn. Law Journ. 17.
     8. A doubtful title is one which the court does not consider to be so clear that it will enforce its acceptance by a purchaser, nor so defective as to declare it a bad title, but only subject to so much doubt that a purchaser ought not to be compelled to accept it. 1 Jac. & Walk. R. 568; 9 Cowen, R. 344; vide Title, Marketable.
     9. At common law, doubtful, titles are unknown; there every title must be either good or bad. Atkins on Tit. 17. See Dalzell v. Crawford, 2 Penn. Law Journ. 17.
     10. A bad title is one which conveys no property to a purchaser of an estate.
     11. Title to real estate is acquired by two methods, namely, by descent and by purchase. (See these words.)
     12. Title to personal property may accrue in three different ways. By original acquisition. 2. By transfer, by act of law. 3. By transfer, by, act of the parties.
     13.-Sec. 1. Title by original acquisition is acquired, 1st. By occupancy. This mode of acquiring title has become almost extinct in civilized governments, and it is permitted to exist only in those few special cases, in which it may be consistent with the public good. First. Goods taken by capture in war were, by the common law, adjudged to belong to the captor, but now goods taken from enemies in time of war, vest primarily in the sovereign, and they belong to the individual captors only to the extent and under such regulations, as positive laws may prescribe. Finch's Law, 28, 178 Bro. tit. Property, pl. 18, 38; 1 Wilson, 211; 2 Kent, Com. 290, 95. Secondly. Another instance of acquisition by occupancy, which still exists under certain limitations, is that of goods casually lost by the owner, and unreclaimed, or designedly abandoned by him; and in both these cases they belong to the fortunate finder. 1 Bl. Com. 296. See Derilict.
     14.-2d. Title by original acquisition is acquired by accession. See Accession.
     15.-3d. It is acquired by intellectual labor. It consists of literary property as the construction of maps and charts, the writing of books and papers. The benefits arising from such labor are secured to the owner. 1. By patent rights for inventions. See Patents. 2. By copyrights. See Copyrights.
     16.-Sec. 2. The title to personal property is acquired and lost by transfer, by act of law, in various ways. 1. By forfeiture. 2. By succession. 3. By marriage. 4. By judgment. 5. By insolvency. 6. By intestacy.
     17.-Sec. 3. Title is also acquired and lost by transfer by the act of the party. 1. By gift. 2. By contract or sale.
     18. In general, possession constitutes the criterion of title of personal property, because no other means exist by which a knowledge of the fact to whom it belongs can be attained. A seller of a chattel is not, therefore, required to show the origin of his title, nor, in general, is a purchaser, without notice of the claim of the owner, compellable to make restitution; but, it seems, that a purchaser from a tenant for life of personal chattels, will not be secure against the claims of those entitled in remainder. Cowp. 432; 1 Bro. C. C. 274; 2 T. R. 376; 3 Atk. 44; 3 V. & B. 16.
     19. To the rule that possession is the criterion of title of property may be mentioned the case of ships, the title of which can be ascertained by the register. 15 Ves. 60; 17 Ves. 251; 8 Price, R. 256, 277.
     20. To convey a title the seller must himself have a title to the property which is the subject of the transfer. But to this general rule there are exceptions. 1. The lawful coin of the United States will pass the property along with the possession. 2. A negotiable instrument endorsed in blank is transferable by any person holding it, so as by its delivery togive a good title "to any person honestly acquiring it." 3 B. & C. 47; 3 Burr. 1516; 5 T. R. 683; 7 Bing. 284; 7 Taunt. 265, 278; 13 East,  509; Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Token :

commercial law. In England, this name is given to pieces of metal, made in the shape of money, passing among private persons by consent at a certain value. 2 Adolph. P. S. 175; 2 Chit. Com. Law, 182.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Tort :

(from Lat. torquere, to twist, tortus, twisted, wrested aside). A private or civil wrong or injury. A wrong independent of contract. A violation of a duty imposed by general law or otherwise upon all persons occupying the relation to each other which is involved in a given transaction. There must always be a violation of some duty owing to plaintiff, and generally such duty must arise by operation of law and not by mere agreement of the parties.

    Three elements of every tort action are : Existence of legal duty from defendant to plaintiff, breach of duty, and damage as proximate result.

    A legal wrong committed upon the person or property independent of contract. It may be either (1) a direct invasion of some legal right of the indicidual; (2) the infraction of some public duty by which special damage accrues to the individual; (3) the violation of some private obligation by which like damage accrues to the individual. In the former case, no special damage is necessary to entitle the party to recover. In the two latter cases, such damage is necessary. A violation of a right in rem which plaintiff has as against all persons with whom he comes in contact or the violation of a right which is created by law and not by any act of parties.

Personal Tort.
One involving or consisting in an injury to the person or to the reputation or feelings, as distinguished from an injury or damage to real or personal property, called a "property tort."  (Black's 4th)

Trade Acceptance :

A draft or bill of exchange drawn by the seller on the purchaser of goods sold and accepted by such purchaser.  (Black's 4th)

Transaction :

Act of transacting or conducting any business; negotiation; management; proceeding; that which is done; an affair. Something which has taken place, whereby a cause of action has arisen. It must therefore consist of an act or agreement, or several acts or agreements having some connection with each other, in which more than one person is concerned, and by which the legal relations of such persons between themselves are altered.

    A broader term than "contract."  (Black's 4th)

Transmitting Utility :

"Transmitting utility" means any person primarily engaged in the railroad, street railway or trolley bus business, the electric or electronics communications transmission business, the transmission of goods by pipeline, or the transmission or the production and transmission of electricity, steam, gas or water, or the provision of sewer service.  UCC 9-105(n).  The proper place to file in order to perfect a security interest in collateral of a transmitting utility is the office of the Secretary of State.  UCC 9-401(5)  If the debtor is a transmitting utility and a filed financing statement so states, it is effective until a termination statement is filed.  UCC 9-403(6).

Traverse :

In the language of pleading, a traverse signifies a denial. Thus, where a defendant denies any material allegation of fact in the plaintiff's declaration, he is said to traverse it, and the plea itself is thence frequently termed a "traverse."

Treasury Note :

A note or bill issued by the treasury department by the authority of the United States government, and circulating as money.  (Black's 4th)

Treasury Securities :

Such as have been lawfully issued and thereafter have been bought by corporation for a consideration out of corporate funds or otherwise aquired from owners, and not retired but placed as an asset of the corporation in its treasury for future use as such.  (Black's 4th)

Trial :

A judicial examination, in accordance with law of the land, of a cause, either civil or criminal, of the issues between the parties, whether of law or fact, before a court that has jurisdiction over it. For purpose of determining such issue.

    It includes all proceedings from time when issue is joined, or, more usually, when parties are called ot try their case in court, to time of its final determination.

    And in its strict definition, the word "trial" in criminal procedure means the proceedings in open court after the pleadings are finished and the prosecution is otherwise ready, down to and including the rendition of the verdict.  (Black's 4th)

True Bill :

practice. These words are endorsed on a bill of indictment, when a grand jury, after having heard the witnesses for the government, are of opinion that there is sufficient cause to put the defendant on his trial. Formerly, the endorsement was Billa vera, when legal proceedings were in Latin; it is still the practice to write on the back of the bill Ignoramus, when the jury do not find it to be a true bill. Vide Grand Jury.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Trustee in Bankruptcy :

A person in whom the property of a bankrupt is vested  in trust for the creditors.  (Black's 4th)

Unalienable :

The state of a thing or right which cannot be sold.
     2. Things which are not in commerce, as public roads, are in their nature unalienable. Some things are unalienable, in consequence of particular provisions in the law forbidding their sale or transfer, as pensions granted by the government. The natural rights of life and liberty are unalienable.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Uniform Commercial Code (UCC) :

One of the uniform laws drafted by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws and the American Law Institute governing commercial transactions (including sales and leasing of goods, transfer of funds, commercial paper, bank deposits and collections, letters of credit, bulk transfers, warehouse receipts, bills of lading, investment securities, and secured transactions). The UCC has been adopted in whole or substantially by all states.  (Black's 6th)

A code of laws governing various commercial transactions, including the sale of goods, banking transactions, secured transactions in personal property, and other matters, that was designed to bring uniformity in these areas to the laws of the various states, and that has been adopted, with some modifications, in all states, as well as in the District of Columbia and in the Virgin Islands.  (Barron's 3rd)

Unless displaced by the particular provisions of this code, the principles of law and equity, including the law merchant and the law relative to capacity to contract, principal and agent, estoppel, fraud, misrepresentation, duress, coercion, mistake, bankruptcy, or other validating or invalidating cause shall supplement its provisions.  UCC 1-103.

Unilateral Contract :

civil law. When the party to whom an engagement is made, makes no express agreement on his part, the contract is called
unilateral, even in cases where the law attaches certain obligations to his acceptance. Civ. Code of Lo. art. 1758. Code Nap. 1103. A loan of money, and a loan for use, are of this kind. Poth. Obl. part 1, c. 1, s. 1, art. 2; Lee. Elemen. Sec. 781.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

United States :

This term has several meanings. It may be merely the name of a sovereign occupying the position analogous to that of other sovereigns in family of nations, it may designate territory over which sovereignty of United States extends, or it may be collective nameof the states which are united by and under the Constitution.  (Black's 4th)

United States of America :

The republic whose organic law is the constitution adopted by the people of the thirteen states that declared their independence of the government of Great Britain on the fourth day of July, 1776.  If the nation comes down from its position of sovereignty and enters the domain of commerce, it submits itself to the same laws of commerce that govern individuals therein. It assumes the position of ordinary citizen and it cannot recede from the fulfillment of its obligations.  (Bouvier's 3rd)

United States Notes :

Promissory notes, resembling bank-notes, issued by the government of the United States.  (Black's 6th)

Unliquidated :

Not ascertained in amount; not determined; remeining unassessed or unsettled; as unliquidated damages.

    A debt is spoken of as "unliquidated," if the amount thereof cannot be ascertained at the trial by a mere computation, based on the terms of the obligation or on some other accepted standard.

    Under the law of accord and satisfaction, a claim or debt will be regarded as unliquidated if it is in dispute as to the proper amount.

    A claim in bankruptcy is "unliquidated" until final fixation of amount of liability.  (Black's 4th)

Valuable Consideration :

contracts. An equivalent for a thing purchased. Vide Vin. Ab. Consideration, B; 2 Bl. Com. 297; Consideration.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

A class of consideration upon which a promise may be founded, which entitles the promisee to enforce his claim against an unwilling promisor. Some right, interest, profit, or benefit accruing to one party, or some forbearance, detriment, loss, or responsibility given, suffered, or undertaken by the other. A gain or loss to either party in whose favor the contract is made parts with a right which he might otherwise exert. It need not be translatable into dollars and cents, but is sufficient if it consists of performance, or promise thereof, which promisor treats and considers of value to him. It is not essential that the person to whom the consideration moves should be benefited, provided the person from whom it moves is, in a legal sense, injured. The injury may consist of a compromise of a disputed claim or forbearance to exercise a legal right, the alteration in position being regarded as a detriment that forms a consideration independent of the actual value of the right forborne.

    The following was said to be a valuable consideration : Extension of time for payment of an obligation. Release of property subject to execution. Pre-existing debt. The distinction between a good and a valuable consideration is that the former consists of blood, or of natural love and affection; as when a man grants an estate to a near relative from motives of generosity, prudence, and natural duty; and the latter consists of such a consideration as money, marriage which is to follow, or the like, which the law esteems an equivalent given for the grant.  (Black's 4th)

Valuation :

The act of ascertaining the worth of a thing. The estimated worth of a thing.

    "Valuation" of itself does not levy tax upon person or property, but is necessary step preliminary thereto.  (Black's 4th)

Value :

The utility of an object in satisfying, directly or indirectly, the needs or desires of human beings, called by economists "value in use;" or its worth consisting in the power of purchasing other objects, called "value in exchange." Also the estimated or appraised worth of any object or property, calculated in money.

Any consideration sufficient to support a simple contract.

    The term is often used as an abbreviation for "valuable consideration," especially in the phrases "purchaser for value," "holder for value," etc.  (Black's 4th)

A person gives "value" for rights if he or she aquires them.  UCC 1-201(44).  (a) An instrument is issued or transferred for value if any of the following apply : (3) The instrument is issued or transferred as security for, an antecedent claim against any person.  UCC 3-303(a)(3)

Vendee :

A purchaser or buyer; one to whom anything is sold. Generally used of the purchaser of real property, one who aquires chattels by sale being called a "buyer".  (Black's 4th)

Vendor :

The person who transfers property by sale, particularly real estate, "seller" being more commonly used for one who selld personalty. Th elatter may, however, with entire propriety, be termed a vendor. A merchant; a retail dealer; sometimes, one who buys to sell

One who negotiates the sale, and becomes the recipient of the consideration, though the title comes to the vendee from another source, and  not from the vendor.  (Black's 4th )

Vessel :

Though, the term "vessel," in admiralty law, is not limited to ships or vessels engaged in commerce.  (Black's 6th)

Public Vessel.
One owned and used by a nation or government for its public service, whether in its navy, its revenue service, or otherwise.  (Black's 4th)

Voucher :

A receipt, acquittance, or release, which may serve as evidence of payment or discharge of a debt, or to certify the correctness of accounts. An account-book containing the acquittances or receipts showing the accountant's discharge of his obligations. When used in connection with disbursement of money, a written or printed instrument in the nature of a bill of particulars, account, receipt, or acquittance, that shows on its face the fact, authority, and purpose of disbursement.  (Black's 4th)

accounts. An account book in which are entered the acquittances, or warrants for the accountant's discharge. It also signifies any acquittance or receipt, which is evidence of payment, or of the debtor's being discharged. See 3 Halst. 299.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Warehouseman :

A "warehouseman" is a person engaged in the business of storing goods for hire.  UCC 7-102(h)

Warehouse Receipt :

A receipt given by a warehouseman for goods received by him on storage in his warehouse. It is evidence of title to goods thereby represented.  (Black's 4th)

A warehouse receipt or other document of title is negotiable (a) If by its terms, the goods are to be delivered to bearer or to the order of a named person; or (b) Where recognized in overseas trade, if it runs to a named person or assigs.  UCC 7-104(1)

Warrant :

V.  In contracts. To engage or promise that a certain fact or state of facts, in relation to the subject-matter, is, or shall be, as it is represented to be.
In conveyancing. To asure the title to property sold, by an express covenant to that effect in the deed of conveyance. To stipulate by an express covenant that the title of a grantee shall be good, and his possession undisturbed.

n.  1. A writ or precept from a competent authority in pursuance of law, directing the doing of an act, and addressed to an officer or person competent to do the act, and affording him protection from damage, if he does it.
2. Particularly, a writ otr precept issued by a magistrate, justice, or other competent authority, addressed to a sheriff, constable, or other officer, requiring him to arrest the body of a person therein named, and bring him before the magistrate or court, to answer, or to be examined, touching some offense which he is charged with having committed.
3. An order by which the drawer authorizes one person to pay a particular sum of money.
4. An authority issued to a collector of taxes, empowering him to collect the taxes extended on the assessment roll, and to make distress and sale of goods or land in default of payment.
5. A command of a council, board, or official whose duty it is to pass upon the validity and determine the amount of a claim against the municipality, to the treasurer to pay money out of any finds in the municipal treasury, which are or may become available for the purpose specified, to a designated person whose claim therefor has been duly adjusted and allowed.

A "warrant" differs from a "bond" in that a bond is a "negotiable instrument", whereas a warrant is non negotiable and is subject at all times to the defenses it would be were it in the hands of the original payee, which is not the case with a negotiable bond.  (Black's 4th)

Warrant :

crim. law, Practice. A writ issued by a justice of the peace or other authorized officer, directed to a constable or other proper person, requiring him to arrest a person therein named, charged with committing some offence, and to bring him before that or some other justice of the peace.
     2. It should regularly be made under the hand and seal of the justice and dated. No warrant ought to be issued except upon the oath or affirmation of a witness charging the defendant with, the offence. 3 Binn. Rep. 88.
     3. The reprehensible practice of issuing blank warrants which once prevailed in England, was never adopted here. 2 Russ. on Cr. 512; Ld. Raym. 546; 1 Salk. 175; 1 H. Bl. R. 13; Doct. Pl. 529; Wood's Inst. 84; Com. Dig. Forcible Entry, D 18, 19; Id. Imprisonment, H 6,; Id. Pleader, 3 K 26; Id. Pleader, 3 M 23. Vide Search warrant.
     4. A bench warrant is a process granted by a court authorizing a proper officer to apprehend and bring before it some on charged with some contempt, crime or misdemeanor. See Bench warrant.
     5. A search warrant is a process issued by a competent court or officer authorizing an officer therein named or described, to examine a house or other place for the purpose of finding goods which it is alleged have been stolen. See Search warrant.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Warranty :

A promise that a proposition of fact is true.  (Black's 4th)

contracts. This word has several significations, as it is applied to the conveyance and sale of lands, to the sale of goods, and to the contract of insurance.
     2.-1. The ancient law relating to warranties of land was full of subtleties and intricacies; it occupied the attention of the most eminent writers on the English law, and it was declared by Lord Coke, that the learning of warranties was one of the most curious and cunning learnings of the law; but it is now of little use even in England. The warranty was a covenant real, whereby the grantor of an estate of freehold, and his heirs, were bound to warrant the title; and either upon voucher, or judgment in, a
writ of warrantia chartae, to yield other lands to the value of those from which there had been an eviction by paramount title Co. Litt. 365; Touchst.; 181 Bac. Ab. h.t.; the heir of the warrantor was bound only on condition that he had, as assets, other lands of equal value by descent.
     3. Warranties were lineal and collateral.
     4. Lineal, when the heir derived title to the land warranted, either from or through the ancestor who made the warranty.
     5. Collateral warranty was when the heir's title was not derived from the warranting ancestor, and yet it barred the heir from claiming the land by any collateral title, upon the presumption that he might thereafter have assets by descent from or through the ancestor; and it imposed upon him the obligation of giving the warrantee other lands, in case of eviction, provided he had assets. 2 Bl. Com. 301, 302.
     6. The statute of 4 Anne, c. 16, annulled these collateral warrantees, which bid become a great grievance. Warranty in its original form, it is presumed, has never been known in the United States. The more plain and pliable form of a covenant has been adopted in its place and this covenant, like all other covenants, has always been held to sound in damages which after judgment may be recovered out of the personal or real estate, as in other cases. Vide 4 Kent, Com. 457; 3 Rawle's R. 67, n.; 2 Wheat. R. 45; 9 Serg. & Rawle, 268; 11 Serg. & Rawle, 109; 4 Dall. Rep. 442; 2 Saund. 38, n. 5.
     7.-2. Warranties in relation, to the sale of personal chattels are of two kinds, express or implied.
     8. An express warranty is one by which the warrantor covenants or undertakes to insure that the thing which is the subject of the. contract, is or is not as there mentioned; as, that a horse is sound; that he is not five years old.
     9. An implied warranty is one which, not being expressly made, the law implies by the fact of the sale; for example, the seller is, understood to warrant the title of goods be sells, when they are in his possession at the time of the sale; Ld. Raym. 593; 1 Salk.. 210; but if they are not then in his possession, the rule of caveat emptor applies, and the buyer purchases at his risk. Cro. Jac. 197.
     10. In general there is no implied warranty of the quality of the goods sold. 2 Kent, Com. 374; Co. Litt. 102, a; 2 Black Comm. 452; Bac. Abr. Action on the case E; 2 Com. Contr. 263; Dougl. 20; 2 East, 31 4; Id. 448, n.; Ross on Vend. c. 6; 1 Johns. R. 274; 4 Conn. R. 428; 1 Dall. Rep. 91; 10 Mass. R. 197; 20 Johns. Rep., 196; 3 Yeates, R. 262; 1 Pet. Rep. 317; 12 Serg. & Rawle, 181; 1 Hard. Kent. Rep. 531; 1 Murphy, Rep. 138; 2 Id. 245; 4 Haywood's Term. R. 227; 2 Caines' Rep. 48. The rule of the civil law was, that a fair price implied a warranty of title; Dig. 21, 2, 1; this rule, has been adopted in Louisiana; Code, art. 247 7; and in South Carolina. 1 Bay, R. 324; 2 Bay, R. 380 1 Const. R. 182; 2 Const. R. 353. Vide Harr. Dig. Sale, II. 8; 12 East, R. 452.
     11.-3. In the contract of insurance, there are certain warranties which are inducements to the insurer to enter into it. A warranty of this kind is a stipulation or agreement on the part of the insured, in the nature of a condition precedent. It may be affirmative; as where the insured undertakes for the truth of some positive allegation: as, that the thing insured is neutral property: or, it may be promissory; as, that the ship shall sail on or before a given day. 6 N. S. 53.
     12. Warranties are also express or implied. An express warranty is a particular stipulation introduced into the written contract, by the agreement of the parties; an implied warranty is an agreement which necessarily results from the nature of the contract: as, that the ship shall be seaworthy when she sails on the voyage insured.
     13. The warranty being in the nature of a condition precedent, it is to be performed by the insured, before he can demand the performance of the contract on the part of the insurer. Marsh. Inst. B. 1, c. 9. See, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h.t.  (Bouvier's 1856 6th Ed.)

Wholesale :

Selling to retailers or jobbers rather than to consumers. A sale in large quantity to one who intends to resell. A sale of goods by the piece or in large quantities.  (Black's 4th)

Writ :

A precept in writing, couched in the form of a letter, running in the name of the king, president, or state, issuing from a court of justice, and sealed with its seal, addressed to a sheriff or other officer of the law, or directly to the person whose action the court desires to command, either as the commencement of a suit or other proceeding or as incidental to its progress, and requiring the performance of a specified act, or giving authority and commission to have it done.

A mandatory precept issuing from a court of justice.  (Black's 4th)